Benedictus de Spinoza

Baruch (de) Spinoza (24 November 1632 – 21 February 1677) was a philosopher of Portuguese-Jewish origin, born in Amsterdam, the Dutch Republic, and mostly known under his Latinized pen name Benedictus de Spinoza. One of the foremost and seminal thinkers of the Enlightenment, modern biblical criticism, and 17th-century Rationalism, including modern conceptions of the self and the universe, he came to be considered "one of the most important philosophers—and certainly the most radical—of the early modern period". Inspired by Stoicism, Jewish Rationalism, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Descartes, and a variety of heterodox Christian thinkers of his day. His controversial ideas challenged the divine origin of the Hebrew Bible, the nature of God, and the earthly power wielded by religious authorities, Jewish and Christian alike. He was frequently called an "atheist" by contemporaries, although nowhere in his work does Spinoza argue against the existence of God. Spinoza was raised in the Portuguese-Jewish community of Amsterdam, where his father Michael was a leading figure. His schooling was curtailed, and he joined his father's importing business, following the unexpected death of his older brother. The previously prosperous business was in deep trouble when his father died in 1654. While an active member of the synagogue, Spinoza developed highly controversial ideas regarding the authenticity of the Hebrew Bible, the nature of the Divine, and questioned rabbinic authority, but kept his views to himself until 1655. The break with rabbinic authorities coincided with the collapse of the family business and the loss of his honored position within the synagogue as a financial supporter. When he openly defied rabbinic authorities in 1655-56, they issued a herem () against him, expelling him permanently from the congregation; he was shunned by Jewish society at age 23, including by his own family. After his expulsion, Spinoza lived an outwardly simple life as an optical lens grinder. But the center of his life was philosophy, and he had a dedicated clandestine circle of supporters, a philosophical sect, who met in person to discuss the writings he shared with them. The secrecy was necessary because his ideas were so explosive, with his 1670 anonymously published Tractatus Theologico-Politicus (TTP) denounced as "A book forged in hell". He died at the age of 44 in 1677 from a lung illness, perhaps tuberculosis, and was buried in a Protestant cemetery in The Hague.