Husayn ibn Ali

Early life

Most narrations report that Husayn was born on the 3rd of Sha'ban 4 AH (11 January 626) in Medina and was still a child when his grandfather, the Islamic prophet Muhammad, died. He was the younger son of Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, and Fatima, the daughter of Muhammad, both from the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe. Both Hasan and Husayn were named by Muhammad, although Ali had other names such as "Harb" in mind. Muhammad sacrificed a ram to celebrate Husayn's birth, and Fatima shaved his head and donated the same weight of his hair in silver as alms. Islamic traditions holds that Husayn is mentioned in the Torah as "Shubayr" and in the Gospels as "Tab".

Husayn was raised in Muhammad's household during his early years. The family formed from the marriage of Ali and Fatima was praised many times by Muhammad. In events such as Mubahala and the hadith of the Ahl al-Kisa, Muhammad referred to this family as the Ahl al-bayt. In the Quran, in many cases, such as the verse of purification, the ahl al-bayt has been praised. Madelung notes that numerous narrations showing Muhammad's love for Hasan and Husayn, such as carrying them on his shoulders or putting them on his chest and kissing them on their bellies. Madelung believes that some of these reports imply a slight preference of Muhammad for Hasan over Husayn, or pointing out that Hasan was more similar to his grandfather. A widely reported hadith in the canonical Sunni collection Sunan al-Tirmidhi, attributed to Muhammad, states Hasan and Husayn as the sayyids (“chiefs”) of the youth of Paradise.

Muhammad: "Hasan and Husayn are the masters of the youth of Paradise. Whoever loves them loves me and whoever hates them hates me. Husayn is from me, and I am from Husayn. God loves whoever loves Husayn. Indeed, Husayn is the Lamp of Guidance and the Ark of Salvation."

Sayyid Shabāb Ahl al-Jannah is an epithet used to refer to each of Muhammad's grandsons. It is also narrated that Muhammad took Ali, Fatima, Hasan and Husayn under his cloak and called them Ahl al-bayt and stated that they are free from any sin and pollution. Muhammad reported the Karbala incident on several occasions; For example, he gave a small bottle of soil to Umm Salama and told her that the soil inside the bottle would turn into blood after Husayn was killed. There are narrations that Gabriel informed Muhammad at the time of Husayn's birth that his ummah would kill Husayn and that the Imamate would be from Husayn, and that Muhammad informed his companions of how Husayn had been killed. Except for Muhammad, Ali and Hasan, they had said the same thing. God also informed the previous prophets about the killing of Husayn. Ali also knew that Husayn would be killed in Karbala, and once he passed by this area, he stopped and cried and remembered the news of Muhammad. He interpreted Karbala (کربلا) as (کرب) anguish and (بلا) calamity. The slain of Karbala will enter Paradise without any reckoning.

Event of Mubahala

In the year 10 AH (631–632) a Christian envoy from Najran came to Muhammad to argue which of the two parties erred in its doctrine concerning Jesus. After likening Jesus' miraculous birth to Adam's creation — who was born to neither a mother nor a father— and when the Christians did not accept the Islamic doctrine about Jesus, Muhammad reportedly received a revelation instructing him to call them to Mubahala, where each party should ask God to destroy the false party and their families:

If anyone dispute with you in this matter [concerning Jesus] after the knowledge which has come to you, say: Come let us call our sons and your sons, our women and your women, ourselves and yourselves, then let us swear an oath and place the curse of God on those who lie.(Qur'an 3:61)

In Shia perspective, in the verse of Mubahala, the phrase "our sons" would refer to Hasan and Husayn, "our women" refers to Fatima, and "ourselves" refers to Ali. Most of the Sunni narrations quoted by al-Tabari do not name the participants. Other Sunni historians mention Muhammad, Fatima, Hasan and Husayn as having participated in the Mubahala, and some Sunnis agree with the Shia tradition that Ali was among them. The verse "God wishes only to remove taint from you, people of the Household, and to make you utterly pure" is also attributed to this event, during which Ali, Fatima, Hasan and Husayn stood under Muhammad's cloak. Thus the title, the Family of the Cloak, is related sometimes to the Event of Mubahala.

During the caliphates of Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman

During the caliphate of Abu Bakr and Umar, Husayn was present at some events such as testifying about the story of Fadak. According to a narration, Husayn, while the second caliph was sitting on the pulpit of Muhammad and giving a speech, objected to him for sitting on the pulpit of Muhammad, and Umar also stopped his sermon and came down from the pulpit. During the time of Uthman, he defended Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, who had preached against some of the actions of the tyrants and was to be exiled from Medina.

According to several narrations, Ali asked Hasan and Husayn to defend the third Caliph during the Assassination of Uthman and carry water to him. According to Vaglieri, when Hasan entered Uthman's house, Uthman was already assassinated. Another report says that Uthman asked Ali's help. The latter send Husayn in response. Then Uthman asked Husayn if he was able to defend himself against rebels. Husayn demurred, so Uthman sent him back. It is also narrated that Uthman's cousin, Marwan ibn al-Hakam, have said Husayn: "Leave us, your father incites the people against us, and you are here with us!" Haeri writes in the Encyclopedia of the Islamic World that, according to some narrations, Husayn or Hasan were wounded in the case of defending Uthman.

During the caliphates of Ali and Hasan

During the Caliphate of Ali, Husayn, along with his brothers Hasan and Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya, and his cousin, Abd Allah ibn Ja'far were among the closest allies of Ali. He remained alongside him, accompanying him in the battlefields. According to a report by Al-Tabari, Husayn was among Ali's major supporters who were cursed in public by the order of Mu'awiya. After the assassination of Ali, people gave allegiance to Hasan. Mu'awiya who did not want to give allegiance to him, prepared to fight. To avoid the agonies of the civil war, Hasan signed a treaty with Mu'awiya I, according to which Mu'awiya would not name a successor during his reign, and let the Islamic community (ummah) choose his successor.

Madelung believes that Husayn did not recognize this treaty at first, but pressed by Hasan, accepted it. Later on when several Shia leaders suggested him to conduct a surprise attack on Mu'awiya's camp near Kufa, he refused, saying that as long as Mu'awiya was alive, he would abide by the terms of the peace treaty, however, after Mu'awiya's death, he will reconsider it. After signing the peace treaty with Hasan, Mu'awiya delivered a sermon in Kufa in which he declared that he had violated all the provisions of the treaty and also insulted Ali. Husayn wanted to respond, but Hasan refused to do so, and Hasan delivered a sermon in response. Husayn then left Kufa for Medina along with Hasan and Abd Allah ibn Ja'far. He adhered to the terms of the treaty even after Hasan's death.

During the caliphate of Mu'awiya

According to the Shia, Husayn was the third Imam for a period of ten years after the death of his brother Hasan in 670. All of this time except the last six months coincided with the caliphate of Mu'awiya. In the nine-year period between Hasan's abdication in AH 41 (660) and his death in AH 49 (669), Hasan and Husayn retreated to Medina, trying to keep aloof from political involvement for or against Mu'awiya. Sentiments in favor of the rule of Ahl al-Bayt occasionally emerged in the form of small groups, mostly from Kufa, visiting Hasan and Husayn asking them to be their leaders – a request to which they declined to respond. When Hasan was poisoned, he refused to tell Husayn the name of his suspect, probably Mu'awiya, in fear of provoking bloodshed. The burial of Hasan's body near that of Muhammad, was another problem which could have led to bloodshed, as Marwan ibn al-Hakam swore that he would not permit Hasan to be buried near Muhammad with Abu Bakr and Umar, while Uthman was buried in the Baqi Cemetery.

After the death of Hasan, when Kufans turned to Husayn, concerning an uprising, Husayn instructed them to wait as long as Mu'awiya was alive due to Hasan's peace treaty with him. Meanwhile, Marwan reported to Mu'awiya the frequent visits of Shias to Husayn. Mu'awiya instructed Marwan not to clash with Husayn, in the same time he wrote a letter to Husayn in which he "mingled generous promises with the advice not to provoke him." Later on, when Mu'awiya was taking allegiance for his son, Yazid, Husayn was among the five prominent persons who did not give his allegiance, as appointing a successor was in violation of Hasan's peace treaty with Mu'awiya. Before his death in April 680, Mu'awiya cautioned Yazid that Husayn might challenge his rule and instructed him to defeat him if they did. Yazid was further advised to treat Husayn with caution and not to spill his blood, since he was Muhammad's grandson.

Uprising

Refusal to give allegiance to Yazid

Immediately after Mu'awiya's death on 15th of Rajab 60 AH (22 April 680), Yazid charged the governor of Medina, Walid ibn Utba ibn Abu Sufyan, to secure allegiance from Husayn with force if necessary. Yazid's goal was to take control of the situation in the city before the people became aware of Mu'awiya's death. Yazid's concern was especially about his two rivals in the caliphate, Husayn and Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr who had previously renounced allegiance. Husayn answered the summons but declined to pledge allegiance in the secretive environment of the meeting, suggesting it should be done in public. Marwan ibn al-Hakam told Walid to imprison or behead him, but due to Husayn's kinship with Muhammad, Walid was unwilling to take any action against him. A few days later, Husayn left for Mecca without acknowledging Yazid. He arrived in Mecca at the beginning of May 680, and stayed there until the beginning of September. He was accompanied by his wives, children and brothers, as well as Hasan's sons.

Invitations from Kufa

Husayn had considerable support in Kufa, which was the capital of his father and brother during their rule. The Kufans had fought the Umayyads and their Syrian allies during the First Fitna, the five-year civil war which had established the Umayyad Caliphate. They were dissatisfied with Hasan's abdication and strongly resented Umayyad rule. While in Mecca, Husayn received letters from pro-Alids in Kufa informing him that they were tired of the Umayyad rule, which they considered to be oppressive, and that they had no rightful leader. They asked him to lead them in revolt against Yazid, promising to remove the Umayyad governor if Husayn would consent to aid them. Husayn wrote back affirmatively that a rightful leader is the one who acts according to the Quran and promised to lead them with the right guidance. Then he sent his cousin Muslim ibn Aqil to assess the situation in Kufa. Ibn Aqil attracted widespread support and informed Husayn of the situation, suggesting that he join them there.

Yazid removed Nu'man ibn Bashir as governor of Kufa due to his inaction and installed Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad, then governor of Basra, in his place. As a result of Ibn Ziyad's suppression and political maneuvering, Ibn Aqil's following began to dissipate and he was forced to declare the revolt prematurely. It was defeated and Ibn Aqil was killed. Husayn had also sent a messenger to Basra, another garrison town in Iraq, but the messenger could not attract any following and was quickly apprehended and executed. Husayn was unaware of the change of political circumstances in Kufa and decided to depart. Abd Allah ibn Abbas and Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr advised him not to move to Iraq, or, if he was determined, not to take women and children with him. Nevertheless, he offered Husayn support if he would stay in Mecca and lead the opposition to Yazid from there. Husayn refused this, citing his abhorrence of bloodshed in the holy sanctuary, and decided to go ahead with his plan.

Journey to Kufa

Despite the advice of Muhammad ibn Hanafiyya, Abd Allah ibn Umar, and the constant insistence of Abd Allah ibn Abbas in Mecca, Husayn did not back down from his decision to go to Kufa. Ibn 'Abbas pointed out that the Kufis had left both his father Ali and his brother Hasan alone, and suggested that Husayn go to Yemen instead of Kufa, or at least not take women and children with him if he were to go to Iraq. Husayn insisted on his decision and wrote about his motives and goals in a famous letter to Muhammad ibn al Hanafiyyah:

"I did not go out for fun and selfishness and for corruption and oppression; Rather, my goal is to correct the corruptions that have occurred in the nation of my ancestors. I want to command the good and forbid the bad, and follow the tradition of my grandfather and the way of my father Ali ibn Abi Talib. So, whoever accepts this truth (and follows me) has accepted the way of God and whoever rejects (and does not follow me) I will walk (my way) with patience and perseverance so that God may be the judge between me and this nation and he is the best judge."

Then, Husayn, who had not yet received the letters of the new events of Kufa, prepared to leave for Kufa on the 8th or 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah 60 AH / 10 or 12 September 680. Instead of performing Hajj, he performed Umrah, and in the absence of the Governor of Mecca, Amr ibn Sa'id ibn As, who was performing Hajj on the outskirts of the city, secretly left the city with his companions and family. Fifty men from Husayn's relatives and friends – who could fight if needed – accompanied Husayn, including women and children. He took the northerly route through the Arabian Desert. On persuasion of Husayn's cousin Abd Allah ibn Ja'far, the governor of Mecca Amr ibn Sa'id sent his brother and Ibn Ja'far after Husayn in order to assure him safety in Mecca and bring him back. Husayn refused to return, relating that Muhammad had ordered him in a dream to move forward irrespective of the consequences. Further on the way, he received the news of the execution of his cousin Ibn Aqil and the indifference of the people of Kufa. He informed his followers of the situation and asked them to leave. Most of the people who had joined him on the way left, while his companions from Mecca decided to stay with him.

On the way, Husayn encountered various people. In response to Husayn's question about the situation in Iraq, the poet Farzadaq explicitly told him that the hearts of the Iraqi people are with you, but their swords are in the service of the Umayyads. But Husayn's decision was unwavering, and in response to those who tried to dissuade him, he said that things were in God's hands and that God wanted the best for His servants and would not be hostile to anyone who was right. The news of the murder of Muslim ibn Aqeel and Hani ibn Arwa was reported by travellers.

Battle of Karbala

After the morning prayer on 10 October, both parties took up battle positions. Husayn appointed Zuhayr ibn al-Qayn to command the right flank of his army, Habib ibn Muzahir to command the left flank, and his half-brother Abbas as the standard bearer. Husayn's companions, according to most accounts, numbered thirty-two horsemen and forty infantrymen. Ibn Sa'd's army totaled 4,000. The ditch containing wood were set alight. Husayn then delivered a speech to his opponents reminding them of his status as Muhammad's grandson and reproaching them for inviting and then abandoning him. He asked to be allowed to leave. He was told that first he had to submit to Yazid's authority, which he refused to do. Husayn's speech moved Hurr to defect to his side.

After Husayn's speech, Zuhayr ibn al-Qayn attempted to dissuade Ibn Sa'd's soldiers from killing Husayn, but in vain. Ibn Sa'd's army fired several volleys of arrows. This was followed by duels in which several of Husayn's companions were slain. The right wing of the Kufans, led by Amr ibn al-Hajjaj, attacked Husayn's force but was repulsed. Hand-to-hand fighting paused and further volleys of arrows were exchanged. Shimr, who commanded the left wing of the Umayyad army, launched an attack, but after losses on both sides, he was repulsed. This was followed by cavalry attacks. Husayn's cavalry resisted fiercely and Ibn Sa'd brought in armoured cavalry and five hundred archers. After their horses were wounded by arrows, Husayn's cavalrymen dismounted and fought on foot.

Since Umayyad forces could approach Husayn's army from the front only, Ibn Sa'd ordered the tents to be burned. All except the one which Husayn and his family were using were set on fire. Shimr wanted to burn that one too, but was prevented by his companions. The plan backfired and flames hindered the Umayyad advance for a while. After noon prayers, Husayn's companions were encircled, and almost all of them were killed. Husayn's family members, who had not taken part in the fighting so far, joined the battle. Husayn's son Ali Akbar was killed; then Husayn's half-brothers, including Abbas, and the sons of Aqil ibn Abi Talib, Jafar ibn Abi Talib and Hasan ibn Ali were slain. The account of Abbas' death is not given in the primary sources, al-Tabari and Baladhuri, but a prominent Shia theologian Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid states in his account in Kitab al-Irshad that Abbas went to the river together with Husayn but became separated, was surrounded, and killed. Abbas is highly revered for his loyalty to Husayn, his courage, and his death while attempting to obtain water from the Euphrates river for Husayn's thirsty children and companions. Abbas’s heroic death at the Battle of Karbala contributed to the development of a legendary figure. At some point, Ali Asghar, the infant child of Husayn, who was sitting on his lap, was hit by an arrow and died.

Shrine

The holy city of Karbala in Iraq contains the Imam Husayn and Al-Abbas Shrines, two of the profoundly holy sites in Shia Islam. Husayn's shrine stands on the site of his grave, where he was martyred during the Battle of Karbala. His martyrdom is commemorated annually by over 35 million Muslims inside Karbala alone, the day known as Ashura, which marks the anniversary of Husayn's martyrdom. The main event is the Arba'in pilgrimage, where up to 40 million visit the city, the largest annual public gathering on earth. Most of the pilgrims travel on foot and come from all around Iraq and nearly 60 countries. The Arba'een pilgrimage, while rooted in Shia Islam, has emerged as a symbol of interfaith engagement. It increasingly attracts participants from various religious backgrounds, including Christians, Jews, and non-Abrahamic faiths such as Hindus, Yazidis, Buddhists, and Zoroastrians, who come to commemorate and mourn the martyrdom of Husayn.

The Al-Abbas Shrine stands opposite the Imam Husayn Shrine. It is the mausoleum of Abbas ibn Ali, a son of Ali, a half-brother of both Hasan and Husayn, Husayn's standard-bearer in the Battle of Karbala, and one of his principal supporters. Also known as Abu al-Fadl, Abbas is highly revered for his loyalty to Husayn, his courage, and his death while attempting to obtain water from the Euphrates river for Husayn's thirsty children and companions. He accompanied Husayn during his journey from Medina to Kufa, and ultimately to Karbala. He desperately attempted to reach the Euphrates to fetch water for the besieged family of Husayn, and was killed in the process. Abbas’s heroic death at the Battle of Karbala contributed to the development of a legendary figure revered among both Shia and Sunni Muslims. It is said that Abbas was the son of Ali who closely resembled his father, inheriting his boldness and bravery. He is regarded by Shia Muslims as an ultimate paragon of courage and self-sacrifice. Over the centuries, the Euphrates river changed course and it now flows around the Abbas Shrine. It is said that the Euphrates has come to Abbas now.

Commemoration

Shia Muslims consider pilgrimages to the Imam Husayn Shrine to be a source of divine blessings and rewards. According to Sh'a tradition the first such visit was performed by Husayn's son al-Sajjad and the surviving family members during their return from Syria to their hometown Medina. The first historically recorded visit is Sulayman ibn Surad and the Penitents going to Husayn's grave before their departure to Syria. They are reported to have lamented and beaten their chests and to have spent a night by the grave. Thereafter this tradition was limited to the Shia Imams for several decades, before gaining momentum under the sixth Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq. Buyids and Safavids also encouraged this practice. Special visits are paid on 10 Muharram (Ashura Pilgrimage) and 40 days after the anniversary of Husayn's (Arba'in pilgrimage). In Shia tradition, Husayn's martyrdom is also connected to the hagiography of Prophet Yahya (John the Baptist). The soil of Karbala, is considered to have miraculous healing effects.

Mourning for Husayn is considered by Shia Muslims to be a source of salvation in the afterlife, and is undertaken as a remembrance of his suffering. After the death of Husayn, when his family was being taken to Ibn Ziyad, Husayn's sister Zaynab is reported to have cried out after seeing his headless body: "O Muhammad!... Here is Husayn in the open, stained with blood and with limbs torn off. O Muhammad! Your daughters are prisoners, your progeny are killed, and the east wind blows dust over them." Shia Muslims consider this to be the first instance of wailing and mourning over the death of Husayn. Husayn's son Ali al-Sajjad, who succeeded his father, spent the rest of his life in Medina weeping for him. Similarly, Husayn's mother Fatima is believed to be weeping for him in paradise and the weeping of believers is considered to be a way of sharing her sorrows. Special gatherings (majalis; sing. majlis) are arranged in places reserved for this purpose, called Husayniyya. In these gatherings the story of Karbala is narrated and various elegies (rawda) are recited by professional reciters (Maddah).

During the month of Muharram, elaborate public processions are performed in commemoration of the Battle of Karbala. In contrast to pilgrimage to the Imam Husayn Shrine and simple lamenting, these processions do not date back to the time of the battle but arose during tenth century. Their earliest recorded instance was in Baghdad in 963 during the reign of the first Buyid ruler Mu'izz al-Dawla. The processions start from a husayniyya and the participants parade barefoot through the streets, wailing and beating their chests and heads before returning to the husayniyya for a majlis. Sometimes, chains and knives are used to inflict wounds and physical pain. In South Asia, an ornately tacked horse called Zuljenah, representing Husayn's battle horse, is also led riderless through the streets. In Iran, the battle scenes of Karbala are performed on stage in front of an audience in a ritual called ta'ziyeh (passion play), also known as shabih-khani. In India however, tazias refer to the coffins and replicas of Husayn's tomb carried in processions.

Family life

Husayn's first marriage was with Rubab bint Imra al-Qais. Her father, Imra' al-Qais, a chief of Banu Kalb, came to Medina during the Caliphate of Umar and was appointed by him as the chief of the Quda'a tribes. Ali proposed her marriage with Husayn, but since Husayn and Imra al-Qais's daughter were too young at the time, the actual marriage took place later. Husayn had a daughter, Amena (or Amina or Omayma) who is known as Sakinah, from her. According to a narration recorded by Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani, Hasan has blamed Husayn for his excessive favors to Rubab. Husayn, in response, depicted his great love for Rubab and Sakinah in three lines of poetry. Later on Rubab bore a son, Abd Allah (or according to recent Shia sources, Ali Asghar) for him. Husayn's kunya, Abu Abd Allah, probably refers to this son. After Husayn's death, Rubab spent a year in grief at his grave and refused to marry again.

According to Madelung, Husayn had two sons named Ali. The older one, Ali al-Sajjad who became the fourth Shia Imam later, was 23 years old when his younger brother (Ali al-Akbar) was killed in the Battle of Karbala at the age of 19. Ali al-Akbar was born from Layla bint Abi Murrah al-Thaqafi, the daughter of Abi Murrah al-Thaqafi, who was an ally of the Umayyads. Husayn's marriage with Layla, according to Madelung, probably had material benefits for Husayn. Ali al-Sajjad's mother was Shahrbanu, the daughter of Yazdegerd III, the last Sassanid. On the other hand, in narrative sources, mistakes and confusion have been made between Ali al-Asghar and Abd Allah. Contemporary Shia circles have carefully identified Al al-Sajjad as Ali al-Awsat and Ali al-Asghar as Husayn's infant son in Karbala; Among these children, Abd Allah – known by the mention of his name in the events of Ashura – is considered the other son of Husayn. According to Madelung, although early Sunni sources refer to Ali al-Sajjad as Ali al-Asghar and Ali II as Ali al-Akbar, it is probably true that Sheikh Mufid and other Shia writers are correct in stating the opposite. Ali II was killed in Karbala at the age of 19. His mother is Layla, the daughter of Abi Murrah ibn Urwah al-Thaqafi and Maymuna bint Abi Sufyan, the sister of Mu'awiya I. According to Madelung, after Hasan's peace with Mu'awiya I, Husayn married Layla, from whom Ali al-Akbar was born.

Umm Ishaq bint Talha ibn Ubayd Allah, the daughter of Talha ibn Ubayd Allah, was another wife of Husayn, who had previously married Hasan. Despite her allegedly bad character, Hasan was pleased with her and asked his younger brother, Husayn, to marry her when he himself died. Husayn did so and had a daughter from her, named Fatima, who later married with Hasan ibn Hasan. Hasan and Husayn were the only male descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatima from whom the next generations were born. Hence, any sayyid who says that his lineage goes back to the Muhammad is either related to Hasan or to Husayn. Hasan and Husayn are different in this respect from their half brothers, such as Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya.

Personality and appearance

Husayn had a white face and sometimes wore a green turban and sometimes a black turban. He would travel with the poor and invite them to his house and feed them. Mu'awiya said about Husayn that he and his father Ali were not deceitful, and Amr ibn al-As considered him the most beloved of the earthlings to the people of heaven. According to the Encyclopedia of Islam, one of the moral characteristics of Husayn is tolerance, humility, eloquence, and finally traits that can be deduced from his behavior, such as despising death, hatred of a shameful life, pride, and the like. In many narrations, the resemblance of Husayn and his brother to Muhammad is mentioned, and each of them is likened to half of their grandfather's behavior.

Husayn is described as looking like his grandfather, Muhammad, though not as much as his older brother Hasan. According to Madelung, Husayn was similar to his father Ali, while Hasan is described as having had the closest resemblance to the Prophet Muhammad. It is said that Abbas was the son of Ali who most closely resembled his father, inheriting his boldness and bravery. Rasool Jafarian considers the narrations in which Husayn is like Ali and Hasan is like Muhammad to be fake; According to him, the image presented in these narrations could have been used to destroy the image of Ali and Ashura and to be useful to those who were in favor of Uthman tendencies. According to the Shia scholar, Muhammad Husayn Tabatabai, the opinion of some commentators about the difference in taste between Hasan and Husayn is misplaced; Because despite not swearing allegiance to Yazid, Husayn, like his brother, spent ten years in Mu'awiya's rule and never opposed it. Mohammad Emadi Haeri believes that Husayn is considered to be similar to Muhammad in most sources, and in one narration the most similar to him. There is also a narration that Ali considers Husayn to be the most similar person in terms of behavior.

Husayn was known for his generosity in Medina, and he freed his slaves and maids if they saw any good behavior. There is a narration that Mu'awiya sent a maid to Husayn with a lot of property and clothes. When the maid recited verses from the Qur'an and a poem about the instability of the world and the death of man, Husayn set her free and gave her property. Once one of Husayn's slaves did something wrong. But after the slave recited part of Quran 3:134 (Arabic: وَالْعافینَ عَنِ النَّاس, romanized: wa-al-‘āfīna ‘ani al-nās, lit. 'and those who forgive people') Husayn forgave him and after that the slave recited the rest of the verse (Arabic: وَلِلَّهِ یُحِبُّ الْمُحسنِينَ, romanized: wa-Allahu yuḥibbu al-muḥsinīn, lit. 'and God loves doers of good'), and so Husayn manumitted him. There is a narration that Husayn gave the property and goods that he inherited before receiving them. Husayn gave his children's teacher a large sum of money and clothes; While acknowledging that this does not compensate for the value of the teacher's work. A Levantine man once cursed Husayn and Ali, but Husayn forgave him and treated him with kindness. It is said that the place of the food bags that Husayn carried for the poor was obvious on his body on the day of Ashura.

In the Quran and Hadith

In the verses of the Quran

Many Sunni and Shia'a commentators, such as Fakhr Razi and Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i, in their interpretation of Surah Al-Insan, attribute its revelation to Ali and Fatima and the story of the illness of their child or children and a vow for their recovery. In interpreting the verse of purification in Al-Mizan, Tabatabai considers the addressee of this verse to be the Ahl al-Kisa and refers to its hadiths, which number more than seventy hadiths and are mostly from the Sunnis. Sunni commentators such as Fakhr Razi and Ibn Kathir, in their commentary, while narrating various narrations about the example of Ahl al-Bayt in this verse, consider Ali, Fatima, Hasan and Husayn as examples.

Another example is verse 3:61 of the Quran. After an inconclusive debate about Jesus with a Christian delegation from Najran in 10/631–2, it was decided to engage in mubuhala, where both parties would pray to invoke God's curse upon whoever was the liar. This is when Muhammad is reported to have received verse 3:61 of the Quran, also known as the verse of mubahala. Madelung argues that 'our sons' in the verse of mubahala must refer to Muhammad's grandchildren, Hasan and Husayn. In that case, he continues, it would be reasonable to also include in the event their parents, Ali and Fatima. Madelung writes that their inclusion by Muhammad in this significant ritual must have raised the religious rank of his family. A similar view is voiced by Lalani.

In the explanation and interpretation of verse 23 of Surah ash-Shura, Tabatabai in Al-Mizan, while reporting and criticizing the various sayings of the commentators, has said that the meaning of "nearness" is the love of the Ahl al-Bayt of Muhammad; That is, Ali is Fatima, Hassan and Husayn. He goes on to cite various narrations from Sunnis and Shias that have clarified this issue. Sunni commentators such as Fakhr al-Razi and Ibn Kathir have also referred to this issue. Verse 15 of Surah Al-Ahqaf talks about a pregnant woman who endures a lot of pain and suffering. This verse is considered a reference to Fatima Zahra, and the son is also known as Husayn, when God expressed his condolences to Muhammad about the fate of this grandson and Muhammad expressed this to Fatima Zahra, she was very upset. Other verses that the Shiites attribute to Husayn include verse 6 of Surah Al-Ahzab and 28 of Surah Az-Zukhruf, which have been interpreted to mean the continuation of the Imamate from his generation. Also, verses such as 77 Surah an-Nisa, 33 Surah al-Isra and 27th to 30th Surah Al-Fajr refer to the uprising and killing of Husayn from the Shiite point of view.

In the biography of Muhammad

Husayn is placed as an example for the second weight in the narrations related to "Thaqalin". In another group of narrations related to Hasnain, they are introduced as "the master of the youth of Paradise". His name and Hassan's, due to their young age, are among those who pledge allegiance in renewing allegiance to Muhammad, which indicates Muhammad's goal in strengthening their historical and social status.

Works

There are narrations, sermons and letters left from Husayn Ibn Ali which are available in Sunni and Shiite sources. Narrations about him can be divided into two periods before and after the Imamate. In the first period – which is the period of his life in the life of his grandfather, father, mother and brother – there are at least two types of narrations about him: first, his narrations from his relatives, and second, his personal hadiths. In Sunni sources, only the aspect of the narration of his hadith has been considered in these hadiths. These musnads, like the musnad of the companions of Muhammad, also have a musnad named Husayn Ibn Ali. In his musnad, Abu Bakr Bazar has narrated the musnad of Husayn Ibn Ali with 4 hadiths and Tabarani has narrated his musnad with 27 hadiths, respectively. In the musnad of Husayn ibn Ali, in addition to the hadiths of Husayn himself, there are also hadiths of Muhammad and Ali ibn Abi Talib. In the present era, Azizullah Atardi has compiled the document of the Imam of the Martyr Abi Abdullah Al-Husayn Ibn Ali.

In the category of sermons of Husayn Ibn Ali, there are some sermons of him in the pre-Imamate period, some of which are very famous. Thus, the sermon of Husayn ibn Ali, after public allegiance to Ali ibn Abi Talib and others, is his sermon in the battle of Safin. Another example is a poem by Husayn about the loss of his brother Hasan after his burial. The sermons and letters of Husayn ibn Ali during his Imamate are more than before him. His letters to the Shiites, as well as his letters to Mu'awiya regarding his adherence to the peace treaty, trace Mu'awiya's actions, especially regarding Yazid, as well as his sermons and letters in the form of letters of recommendation at the beginning of Yazid's caliphate. An important part of the sermons and letters belong to the period of the uprising of Husayn bin Ali. Correspondence with Kufis, Basrians and people like Muslim Ibn Aqeel is like this. Hadiths on the subjects of jurisprudence, interpretation, beliefs, rulings and sermons, supplications, advice and poetry also remain from Husayn, which are scattered in Shiite and Sunni sources and have been compiled and published in the form of collections. There are also prayers left by Husayn Ibn Ali which have been published in the form of collections entitled Al-Sahifa Al-Husayn or prays of Imam Al-Husayn. One of the most famous Shia prayers, as well as the works of Husayn, recorded in the book, Mafatih al-Janan, is the Du'a Arafah. According to William C. Chittick, this prayer is the most famous prayer in terms of its beauty and spiritual structure and is recited every year on the Day of Arafah and during the Hajj season – that is, when it was first recited by Husayn ibn Ali – by Shia pilgrims. This prayer has a special and important role in Shia theology and Mulla Sadra, the philosopher and mystic, has referred to this prayer many times in his works.

Views

The killing of Husayn has had an emotional impact on Sunnis, who remember the event as a tragic incident and those killed in the company of Husayn as martyrs. The impact on Shi'a Islam has been much deeper. According to Vaglieri, only the adherents of the Umayyad who considered him as "a rebel against the established authority", condoned his murder by Yazid, but their opinion was opposed by the majority of Muslims. Therefore, almost all Muslims consider Husayn honorable because he was the grandson of Muhammad and because of the belief that he sacrificed himself for an ideal. Historian Edward Gibbon described the events at Karbala as a tragedy. According to historian Syed Akbar Hyder, Mahatma Gandhi attributed the historical progress of Islam, to the "sacrifices of Muslim saints like Husayn" rather than military force.

Sunnis

The positive attitude of the Sunnis towards Husayn, according to Vaglieri, is most likely due to the sad narrations that Abu Mikhnaf has collected, some of which have been narrated directly or with short chains of transmitters, mostly from Kufis who regretted their actions towards Husayn. These sad narrations of the Kufis, which were a sign of Abu Mikhnaf's Shia tendencies, became the source of the narrations used by later historians and spread throughout the Islamic world. According to Rasul Jafarian, the Shia historian, fatalism, being promoted by Mu'awiya, caused Husayn's move to never be considered an uprising against corruption by the Sunnis, and they only considered it an illegal insurrection (Fitna).

Shias

The most important components of Shia views about Husayn are the belief in the Imamate of Husayn and the characteristics of an Imam by the Shia religions; Twelvers, Ismailis and Zaydis. Like other Imams, Husayn is a mediator with God for those who call on him; "it is through his intercession (Tawassul) that his faithful followers obtain guidance and attain salvation."

As a member of Ahl al-Kisa, he receives all the divine grace that exist in his older brother, Hasan, also as the grandson of Muhammad. According to Vaglieri, the basis of the Shias' glorification of Husayn is his outstanding sacred and moral action and the noble ideals to which he sacrificed himself. From the belief that "the Imams know all that was, that is, and that is to come, and that their knowledge does not increase with time", it is inferred that Husayn already knew the fate that awaited him and his followers. Hence, he left Mecca for Kufa, aware of his imminent sacrifice and yet without any hesitation or attempt to escape the will of God. A narration according to which Husayn was called by God to choose between sacrifice and Victory (with the help of an angel), gives even more value to his enterprise. About the reason for Husayn's sacrifice in Shia sources Vaglieri write:

Husayn gave his person and his possessions as an offering to God to "revive the religion of his grandfather Muhammad", "to redeem it", and "save it from the destruction into which it had been thrown by the behaviour of Yazid"; furthermore, he wished to show that the conduct of the hypocrites was shameful and to teach the peoples the necessity of revolt against unjust and impious governments (fasiks), in short he offered himself as an example (uswa) to the Muslim community. He is thus remembered as the prince of martyrs (Sayyed al-Shuhada).

The historian G. R. Hawting describes the Battle of Karbala as a "supreme" example of "suffering and martyrdom" for Shi'as. According to Abdulaziz Sachedina, it is seen by Shi'as the climax of suffering and oppression, revenge for which came to be one of the primary goals of many Sh'a uprisings. This revenge is believed to be one of the fundamental objectives of the future revolution of the twelfth Imam Muhammad al-Mahdi, whose return is awaited. With his return, Husayn and his seventy-two companions are expected to be resurrected along with their killers, who will then be punished. Believing that Husayn wanted to redeem people from their sins with his blood, and that his action was "a redemptive sacrifice for the salvation of the world", according to Vaglieri, is foreign to Shia belief; however it may have been penetrated to Shia ta'ziyeh and recent poems later on, since it is easy to make the transition from tawassul to this idea, or it may be influenced by Christian ideas.

Ahl-e Haqq

In the holy text of Yarsanism named Zolāl Zolāl is a long dialogue between angels Ruchiyar and Ayvat and their reincarnations. It is written in the book that the angel Ayvat incarnated into Husayn ibn Ali and after his death into a Yari saint named Baba Yadegar.

Modern historical views on motivations of Husayn

Vaglieri considers him to be motivated by ideology, saying that if the materials that have come down to us are authentic, they convey an image of person who is "convinced that he was in the right, stubbornly determined to achieve his ends..." Holding a similar view, Madelung has argued that Husayn was not a "reckless rebel" but a religious man motivated by pious convictions. According to him, Husayn was convinced that "the family of the Prophet was divinely chosen to lead the community founded by Moḥammad, as the latter had been chosen, and had both an inalienable right and an obligation to seek this leadership."

He was, however, not seeking martyrdom and wanted to return when his expected support did not materialize. Maria Dakake holds that Husayn considered the Umayyad rule oppressive and misguided, and revolted to reorient the Islamic community in the right direction. A similar view is held by Mahmoud M. Ayoub. Husain Mohammad Jafri proposes that Husayn, although motivated by ideology, did not intend to secure leadership for himself. Husayn, Jafri asserts, was from the start aiming for martyrdom in order to jolt the collective conscience of the Muslim community and reveal what he considers to be the oppressive and anti-Islamic nature of the Umayyad regime. Others such as Wellhausen and Lammens, view his revolt as premature and ill-prepared, while others like Heinz Halm see it as a struggle for political leadership among the second generation of Muslims. Fred Donner, G. R. Hawting, and Hugh N. Kennedy consider Husayn's revolt an attempt to regain what his brother Hasan had renounced."

Legacy

The first political use of the death of Husayn seems to have been during the revolt of Mukhtar, when he seized Kufa under the slogan of "Revenge for Husayn". Although the Penitents had used the same slogan, they do not seem to have had a political program. In order to enhance their legitimacy, Abbasid rulers claimed to have avenged the death of Husayn by dethroning the Umayyads. During the early years of their rule, they also encouraged Muharram rituals. Buyids, a Shia Muslims dynasty originally from Iran which later caputued the Abbasid capital Baghdad while accepting the Abbasid caliph's suzerainty, promoted the public rituals of Muharram to portray themselves as patrons of religion and to strengthen the Shia identity in Iraq.

After taking over Iran in 1501, Safavids, who were previously a Sufi order, declared the state religion to be Twelver Shia Islam. In this regard, Karbala and Muharram rituals came to be a vehicle of Safavids and a means of consolidating the dynasty's Shia Islamic identity. Riza Yildirim has claimed that the impetus of the Safvid revolution was the revenge of the death of Husayn. The founder of the dynasty, Ismail I, considered himself to be the Mahdi (the twelfth Shi'a Imam) or his forerunner. Similarly, Qajars also patronised Muharram rituals such as processions, taziya and majalis, to improve the relationship between the state and the public.

Karbala and Shia symbolism played a significant role in the Iranian Revolution. Shia Islam and Karbala were given a new interpretation in the period preceding the revolution by rationalist intellectuals and religious revisionists like Jalal Al-e-Ahmad, Ali Shariati and Nematollah Salehi Najafabadi. According to them, Shia Islam is an ideology of revolution and political struggle against tyranny and exploitation, and the Battle of Karbala and the death of Husayn is to be seen as a model for revolutionary struggle; weeping and mourning was to be replaced by political activism to realise the ideals of Husayn.

After the White Revolution reforms of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, which were opposed by the Iranian clergy and others, Ruhollah Khomeini labelled the Shah as the Yazid of his time. Shia beliefs and symbols were instrumental in orchestrating and sustaining widespread popular resistance with Husayn's story providing a framework for labeling as evil and reacting against the Pahlavi regime. Condemning the Iranian monarchy, Khomeini wrote: "The struggle of Husayn at Karbala is interpreted in the same way as a struggle against the non-Islamic principle of monarchy." Opposition to the Shah was thus compared with the opposition of Husayn to Yazid, and Muharram ritual gatherings became increasingly political at the time. According to Aghaie, the Shah's hostility towards Muharram rituals, which he considered to be uncivilized, contributed to his fall. The Islamic Republic of Iran that was established after the revolution has since promoted Muharram rituals. The clerics encourage public participation in elections as a form of "political activism" comparable to that of Husayn. Martyrdom spirit influenced by the death of Husayn was frequently witnessed in Iranian troops during the Iran–Iraq War in the 1980s.

In art and literature

Literature

Mir Mosharraf Hossain's 19th-century novel on Karbala, Bishad Sindhu (the Ocean of Sorrow), established the precedent of the Islamic epic in Bangali literature. South Asian philosopher and poet Muhammad Iqbal sees Husayn's sacrifice as being similar to that of Ishmael and compares Yazid's opposition to Husayn with the opposition of Pharaoh to Moses. Urdu poet Ghalib compares Husayn's suffering with that of Mansur al-Hallaj, a tenth century Sufi, who was executed on a charge of claiming divinity.

Maqtal (pl. Maqatil) works narrate the story of someone's death. Although Maqatil on the deaths of Ali, Uthman and various others have been written, the Maqtal genre has focused mainly on the story of Husayn's death.

As well as Abu Mikhnaf's Maqtal, other Arabic Maqatil on Husayn were written. Most of these mix history with legend and have elaborate details on Husayn's miraculous birth, which is stated to be on 10 Muharram, coinciding with his date of death. The universe as well as humanity are described as having been created on the day of Ashura (10 Muharram). Ashura is also asserted to have been the day of both Abraham's and Muhammad's birth and of the ascension of Jesus to heaven, and of numerous other events concerning prophets. Husayn is claimed to have performed various miracles, including quenching his companions' thirst by putting his thumb in their mouths and satisfying their hunger by bringing down food from the heavens, and to have killed several thousand Umayyad attackers. Other accounts claim that when Husayn died, his horse shed tears and killed many Umayyad soldiers; the sky became red and it rained blood; angels, jinns and wild animals wept; that light emanated from Husayn's severed head and that it recited the Qur'an; and that all of his killers met calamitous end. Maqtal later entered Persian, Turkish, and Urdu literature and inspired the development of rawda.

When Shia Islam became the official religion of Iran in the 16th century, Safavid kings such as Tahmasp I patronised poets who wrote about the Battle of Karbala. The genre of marthiya (poems in the memory of the dead, with popular forms of Karbala related marthiya being rawda and nawha), according to Persian scholar Wheeler Thackston, "was particularly cultivated by the Safavids." Various Persian authors wrote texts retelling romanticized and synthesized versions of the battle and events from it, including Sa'id al-Din's Rawdat al-Islam (The Garden of Islam) and Al-Khawarazmi's Maqtal nur 'al-'a'emmah (The Site of the Murder of the Light of the Imams). These influenced the composition of the more popular text Rawdat al-Shuhada (Garden of Martyrs), which was written in 1502 by Husain Wa'iz Kashefi. Kashefi's composition was an effective factor in the development of rawda khwani, a ritual recounting of the battle events in majalis.