The Kojiki (古事記; Japanese pronunciation: [kó̞.(ɟ̟͡)ʑì.k̟ʲì, kò̞.(ɟ̟͡)ʑí.-], "Records of Ancient Matters" or "An Account of Ancient Matters"), also sometimes read as Furukotofumi or Furukotobumi, is an early Japanese chronicle of myths, legends, hymns, genealogies, oral traditions, and semi-historical accounts dating as far back as 641 concerning the origin of the Japanese archipelago, the kami, and the Japanese imperial line. It is claimed in its preface to have been composed by Ō no Yasumaro at the request of Empress Genmei in the early 8th century (711–712), and thus is usually considered to be the oldest extant literary work in Japan.
The myths contained in the Kojiki as well as the Nihon Shoki are part of the inspiration behind many practices and unified "Shinto orthodoxy". Later, they were incorporated into Shinto practices such as the misogi purification ritual.
Contents
Composition
It is believed that the compilation of various genealogical and anecdotal histories of the imperial (Yamato) court and prominent clans began during the reigns of Emperors Keitai and Kinmei in the 6th century, with the first concerted effort at historical compilation of which we have record being the one made in 620 under the auspices of Prince Shotoku and Soga no Umako. According to the Nihon Shoki, the documents compiled under their initiative were the Tennōki or the "Record of the Emperors", the Kokki (国記, also Kunitsufumi) or the "National Record", and other "fundamental records" (本記, hongi or mototsufumi) pertaining to influential clans and free subjects. Out of these texts, only the Kokki survived the burning of Soga no Emishi's estate (where these documents were kept) during the Isshi incident of 645, and was itself apparently lost soon after.
The Kojiki's preface indicates that leading families also kept their own historical and genealogical records; indeed, one of the reasons it gives for the compilation of the Kojiki is the correction of errors that had supposedly crept into these documents. According to the preface, Emperor Tenmu (reigned 673–686) ordered the review and emendation of clan documents and commissioned a certain court attendant (toneri) of exceptional memory named Hieda no Are to memorize records and oral traditions concerning the imperial lineage. Beyond this memorization, nothing occurred until the reign of Empress Genmei (reigned 707–715), who on the 18th of the 9th month of 711 (Wadō 4) ordered the courtier Ō no Yasumaro to record what had been learned by Hieda no Are. Yasumaro wrote down the information in Classical Chinese and presented his work to Empress Genmei on the 28th of the 1st month of 712 (Wadō 5).
Purpose
The Kojiki is a collation of different traditions woven into a single "official" mythology, made in an attempt to justify the rule of the imperial Yamato polity and at the same time to subsume different interest groups under its wing by giving them a place and an interest in the national genealogy-mythology. Apart from furthering the imperial agenda, an increased interest in the nation's origins in reaction to the influx of foreign culture and the need for an authoritative genealogical account by which to consider the claims of noble families and to reorganize them into a new system of ranks and titles are also possible factors for its compilation.
The Kojiki's narrative establishes the Yamato line's right to rule via myth and legend, portraying it as the progeny of heavenly deities and the rightful heir to the land of Japan. A good part of the latter portion of the text is spent recounting various genealogies which served not only to give the imperial family an air of antiquity (which may not necessarily reflect historical reality), but also served to tie, whether true or not, many existing clans' genealogies to their own. Regardless of the work's original intent, it finalized and possibly even formulated the framework by which Japanese history was examined in terms of the reign of emperors.
This legitimizing function is most concretely visible in the rivalry between the Yamato court and the Izumo lineage, whose local traditions the Kojiki absorbs into its mythology precisely in order to subordinate them to Yamato's claim to divine rule. It has also been noted that the text contains no reference to Buddhism, notwithstanding Emperor Tenmu's own devotion to the religion, a silence that has reinforced the view among historians and literary scholars that the Kojiki is best approached as myth rather than as history.
In contrast to the Nihon Shoki (compiled 720), the first of six histories commissioned by the imperial court, which was modeled on Chinese dynastic histories and was intended to be a national chronicle that could be shown with pride to foreign envoys, the Kojiki is inward looking, concerned mainly with the ruling family and prominent clans, and is apparently intended for internal consumption. Whereas the Nihon Shoki uses a variety of source documents (including Chinese texts), the Kojiki is apparently based on sources handed down within the court.
Transmission and study
Whereas the Nihon Shoki, owing to its status as one of the six imperial histories, was widely read and studied during the Heian period (794–1185), the Kojiki was mostly treated as an ancillary text. Indeed, a work known as the Sendai Kuji Hongi (also known as the Kujiki), claimed to have been authored by Prince Shōtoku and Soga no Umako, was considered to be earlier and more reliable than the Kojiki. (Modern scholarly consensus holds the Kuji Hongi to be a Heian period forgery based on both the Kojiki and the Shoki, although certain portions may indeed preserve genuine early traditions and sources.) By the Kamakura period (1185–1333), the work languished in obscurity such that very few people had access to the text, particularly that of the middle (second) volume. It is due to this neglect that the Kojiki is available only in comparatively late manuscripts, the earliest of which dates to the late 14th century.
It was with the advent of printing in the early modern period that the Kojiki first reached a wide audience. The earliest printed edition of the text was the Kan'ei Kojiki (寛永古事記), published in Kyoto in 1644 (Kan'ei 21). A second edition, the Gōtō Kojiki (鼇頭古事記, "Kojiki with Marginal Notes") was printed by Deguchi (Watarai) Nobuyoshi, a priest at Ise Shrine, in 1687 (Jōkyō 4).
The birth of nativist studies (kokugaku) and nationalist sentiment during the Edo period saw a reappraisal of the Kojiki. Kokugaku scholars saw Japan's earliest writings as the repository of a uniquely superior Japanese identity that could be revived by recovering the ancient language they were written in; the Kojiki, by virtue of its antiquity, gained the status of a sacred text. The Kojiki came to be highly regarded that scholars such as Kada no Azumamaro and Kamo no Mabuchi – himself a student of Azumamaro – produced annotated versions of it.
The Kojiki received its most serious study and exposition in the hands of Motoori Norinaga, who obtained a copy of the Kan'ei printed edition in 1754. After meeting Mabuchi in 1763, Norinaga began to devote his efforts to an in-depth scholarly study of the text. A monumental 44-volume study of the Kojiki called Kojiki-den, composed over a 34-year period (1764–1798), was the fruit of his labor. With Norinaga, the Kojiki assumed an importance equal to the Nihon Shoki; in fact, in his view the Kojiki was a more trustworthy source for ancient Japanese traditions than was the Shoki precisely because it was free of "Chinese mentality". He viewed the Kojiki as a true account of actual events that when read correctly, could reveal Japan in its pristine, ideal state as a community where the kami, the emperor and the people lived in harmony. Norinaga's work was carried on in different directions by his disciple Hirata Atsutane and his rivals Fujitani Mitsue (1768–1823) and Tachibana Moribe (1781–1849), who each produced commentaries and treatises on the text.
Manuscripts
There are two major branches of Kojiki manuscripts: Ise and Urabe. The extant Urabe branch consists of 36 existing manuscripts all based on the 1522 copies by Urabe Kanenaga. The Ise branch may be subdivided into the Shinpukuji-bon (真福寺本) manuscript of 1371–1372 and the Dōka-bon (道果本) manuscripts. The Dōka sub-branch consists of:
the Dōka-bon (道果本) manuscript of 1381; only the first half of the first volume remains
the Dōshō-bon (道祥本) manuscript of 1424; only the first volume remains, and there are many defects
the Shun'yu-bon (春瑜本) manuscript of 1426; one volume
The Shinpukuji-bon manuscript (1371–1372) is the oldest existing manuscript. While divided into the Ise branch, it is actually a mixture of the two branches. The monk Ken'yu based his copy on Ōnakatomi Sadayo's copy. In 1266, Sadayo copied volumes one and three but did not have access to the second volume. Finally, in 1282, he obtained access to the second volume through a Urabe-branch manuscript that he used to transcribe.
Structure
The Kojiki recounts the mythological creation of Japan, the genealogy of the Japanese gods (kami), and the histories of the semi-legendary early emperors of Japan. Its narrative portions also contain dozens of short songs and poems (uta), often spoken by gods, heroes, or early rulers. The book is written mostly in Classical Chinese, although the songs are written in Old Japanese using man'yōgana, a system where Chinese characters were used purely phonetically to represent the syllables of Old Japanese.
Sections
The Kojiki is divided into three parts: the Kamitsumaki (上巻, "upper volume"), the Nakatsumaki (中巻; "middle volume") and the Shimotsumaki (下巻; "lower volume").
The Kamitsumaki, also known as the Kamiyo no Maki (神代巻; "Volume of the Age of the Gods"), includes the preface of the Kojiki, and is focused on the deities of creation and the births of various deities of the kamiyo (神代) period, or Age of the Gods. The Kamitsumaki also outlines the myths concerning the foundation of Japan. It describes how Ninigi-no-Mikoto, grandson of Amaterasu and great-grandfather of Emperor Jimmu, descended from heaven to Takachihonomine in Kyūshū and became the progenitor of the Japanese Imperial line.
The Nakatsumaki begins with the conquests of Jimmu, which make him the first Emperor of Japan; and ends with the 15th Emperor, Ōjin. The second through ninth Emperors' reigns are recorded in a minimum of detail, with only their names, the names of their various descendants, and the locations of their palaces and tombs listed, with no mention of their achievements. Many of the stories in this volume are mythological; the allegedly historical information is highly suspect.
The Shimotsumaki covers the 16th to 33rd Emperors and, unlike previous volumes, has very limited references to interactions with deities. (Such interactions are very prominent in the first and second volumes.) Information about the 24th to 33rd Emperors is scant.
Synopsis
What follows is a condensed summary of the contents of the text, including many of the names of gods, emperors, and locations as well as events which took place in association with them. The original Japanese is included in parentheses where appropriate.
Preface (序)
Ō no Yasumaro's preface, in the form of a dedicatory address to Empress Genmei, begins with a poem summarizing the main contents of the work. He then relates how Emperor Tenmu commissioned Hieda no Are to memorize the genealogies and records of the imperial house years earlier, and how Genmei in turn ordered Yasumaro to compile a written record of what Are had learned. He finally concludes the preface with a brief explanation of the Chinese characters used to transcribe native Japanese words in the text and the division of the work into three volumes.
The Kamitsumaki (上巻), or first volume
The Beginning of Heaven and Earth
When heaven and earth came into existence, three gods collectively known as the Kotoamatsukami (別天津神, "Distinguished Heavenly Kami") appeared, who were then followed by seven generations of deities. The seventh and final generation of kami, a male-female pair known as Izanagi-no-Mikoto (伊邪那岐命) and Izanami-no-Mikoto (伊邪那美命), are ordered to solidify and shape the earth, which was then like floating oil on the primeval ocean. The couple, using a spear, churn the ocean, thus forming the island of Onogoro (淤能碁呂島).
The Birth of the Gods (神生み Kamiumi)
Making their home on the island, Izanagi and Izanami marry and beget the islands of Japan as well as numerous other kami. Izanami dies while giving birth to the fire god Kagutsuchi-no-Kami (火神迦具土神); in a fit of rage, Izanagi kills the newborn Kagutsuchi and searches for his wife in Yomi (黄泉国, Yomi no kuni), the land of the dead. Izanami reveals that she had already eaten the food of the underworld and thus cannot return to the land of the living; she will, however, try to ask for permission and bade Izanagi to wait. Izanagi loses his patience and lights his comb as a torch to gaze at his wife, only to find that Izanami is now a rotting corpse. Horrified at this sight, Izanagi runs away and seals the entrance to Yomi. Izanami pronounces a curse, vowing to kill a thousand people each day, to which Izanagi replies that he will then beget fifteen hundred people everyday to thwart her. Izanagi, feeling contaminated by his visit to Yomi, went to immerse himself in a river, bringing more gods into existence as he does so. The three most important kami, the "Three Precious Children" (三貴子, mihashira no uzu no miko, sankishi) – Amaterasu Ōmikami (天照大御神), Tsukuyomi-no-Mikoto (月読命), and Susanoo-no-Mikoto (須佐之男命) – came into existence when Izanagi washed his left eye, his right eye, and his nose, respectively.
Amaterasu and Susanoo
Izanagi divides the world among his three children: Amaterasu was allotted Takamagahara (高天原, the "Plain of High Heaven"), Tsukuyomi the night, and Susanoo the seas. Susanoo, who missed his mother and kept weeping and howling incessantly, rejects his appointed task, leading Izanagi to expel him. Susanoo then goes up to Takamagahara, claiming to wish to see his sister. When a suspicious Amaterasu went out to meet him clad in armor, Susanoo protested his innocence and proposed that they exchange oaths. Five male kami (Amaterasu's sons) and three female kami (Susanoo's daughters) come into existence when the two gods each chewed and spat out an object carried by the other (Amaterasu Susanoo's sword, Susanoo Amaterasu's magatama beads) during the rite of oath-taking. Susanoo, declaring himself the winner of the contest, "raged with victory" and proceeds to wreak havoc upon Takamagahara, causing Amaterasu to hide in the Ama-no-Iwato (天岩戸, the "Heavenly Rock Cave"), plunging heaven and earth into total darkness. The gods, led by the wise Omoikane-no-Kami (思金神), eventually persuade her to come out of the cave, restoring light to the world. As punishment for his misdeeds, Susanoo is thrown out of Takamagahara.
The Nakatsumaki (中巻), or second volume
Kamu-Yamato-Iwarebiko-no-Mikoto (神倭伊波礼毘古命), or Emperor Jimmu (神武天皇)
Emperor Jimmu conquers Yamato
The sword from heaven, or Futsu no mitama (布都御魂), and the three-legged crow, or Yatagarasu (八咫烏)
The emperor's brother Hikoitsuse no Mikoto (彦五瀬命)
From Kumano (熊野) to Yamato (大和)
An ancient ballad, kumeuta (久米歌)
The Empress Isukeyorihime or Empress Hime Tatara Isuzu (伊須気余理比売)
The rebellion of Tagishimimi no Mikoto (当芸志美美命)
Kamu-Nunakawamimi-no-Mikoto (神沼河耳命), or Emperor Suizei (綏靖天皇)
Shikitsuhiko-Tamatemi-no-Mikoto (師木津日子玉手見命), or Emperor Annei (安寧天皇)
Ōyamatohiko-Sukitomo-no-Mikoto (大倭日子鍬友命), or Emperor Itoku (懿徳天皇)
Mimatsuhiko-Kaeshine-no-Mikoto (御真津日子可恵志泥命), or Emperor Kōshō (孝昭天皇)
Ōyamato-Tarashihiko-Kuni-oshihito-no-Mikoto (大倭帯日子国押人命), or Emperor Kōan (孝安天皇)
Ōyamato-Nekohiko-Futoni-no-Mikoto (大倭根子日子賦斗迩命), or Emperor Kōrei (孝霊天皇)
Ōyamato-Nekohiko-Kunikuru-no-Mikoto (大倭根子日子国玖琉命), or Emperor Kōgen (孝元天皇)
Wakayamato-Nekohiko-Ōbibi-no-Mikoto (若倭根子日子大毘毘命), or Emperor Kaika (開化天皇)
The Shimotsumaki (下巻), or final volume
Ōsazaki no mikoto (大雀命), or Emperor Nintoku (仁徳天皇)
The emperor's son and queen
Kibi Kurohime (吉備の黒日売)
Yatanowakiiratsume (八田若郎女) and Iha no hime (石之日売)
Hayabusawake no kimi (速総別王) and Medori no kimi (女鳥王)
Wild goose eggs
A boat called Kareno (枯野), or desolate field
Izahowake no miko (伊邪本若気王), or Emperor Richū (履中天皇)
The rebellion of Suminoenonakatsu no kimi (墨江中王)
Mizuhawake no kimi (水歯別王) and Sobakari (曾婆可理)
Mizuhawake no mikoto (水歯別命), or Emperor Hanzei (反正天皇)
Osatsumawakugonosukune no miko (男浅津間若子宿迩王), or Emperor Ingyō (允恭天皇)
The emperor's son and queen
Uji kabane system (氏姓制度)
Karunohitsugi no miko (軽太子) and Karunōhoiratsume (軽大郎女)
Anaho no miko (穴穂御子), or Emperor Ankō (安康天皇)
Ōkusaka no kimi (大日下王) and Nenōmi (根臣)
The incident of Mayowa no kimi (目弱王) and Mayowa no ōkimi (眉輪王)
Ichinobenōshiwa no kimi (市辺之忍歯王)
English-language translations
Chamberlain, Basil Hall. 1882. A translation of the "Ko-ji-ki" or Records of ancient matters. Yokohama, Japan: R. Meiklejohn and Co., Printers. (www.sacred-texts.com)
Philippi, Donald L. 1968/1969. Kojiki. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press and Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press. (ISBN 978-0691061603)
Heldt, Gustav. 2014. The Kojiki: An Account of Ancient Matters. New York: Columbia University Press. (ISBN 978-0-231-16389-7)