krupuk

Origins

Animal-based preparations in Southeast Asia

Early forms of such foods in the region are thought to have been made from animal skin, which could be preserved, dried and later fried for consumption. Across Southeast Asia, buffalo, cow and pig skins were traditionally kept for non-culinary purposes such as leatherwork or drum-making, while frying or roasting the skin as food represented a way of maximising the use of slaughtered animals in peasant or village settings where little was wasted. The technique of drying and rendering skin before frying, which causes it to puff when cooked, is believed to have developed independently in different regions, including in Thailand and Indonesia.

In Indonesia, historical sources suggest that krupuk was already known by the 9th or 10th century. The Batu Pura inscription mentions krupuk rambak, a cracker made from cow or buffalo skin that survives today as krupuk kulit, often served with the Javanese dish krechek. According to A. G. Pringgodigdo in the Ensiklopedi Umum, its preparation involved cleaning and boiling hides before slicing and drying them for later use. Similar skin-based crackers also appear in other regional traditions, such as the Sundanese dorokdok and the Minangkabau karupuak jangek.

Development of starch-based crackers

Alongside these skin-based varieties, starch-based crackers developed as a distinct preparation method and eventually became the predominant form across Southeast Asia. Their emergence is often linked to broader food practices in Asia, where root crops, grains and seafood formed important components of the diet. Mixing starch with ingredients such as fish, shrimp or tubers and then drying the mixture provided a practical way to preserve and extend food resources, and similar techniques appear to have arisen independently in multiple parts of maritime and coastal Southeast Asia.

In the Malay Peninsula, local tradition traces the origin of keropok udang (prawn crackers) to the 16th century, when leftover prawn heads from a feast were used to prepare the first crackers. By the 19th century, keropok was documented by the Malay writer Abdul Kadir Munsyi, who noted its production in the Kuantan region. The tradition also extended to the Philippines, where a related preparation known as kropeck is believed to have been introduced through early contact with Malay communities prior to Spanish colonisation. Made from shrimp or fish paste combined with flour and dried before frying, it became a familiar snack and remains widely consumed.

In the Mekong Delta of Vietnam, bánh phồng tôm developed in areas where rice cultivation and shrimp farming were central to local livelihoods, with production in Sa Đéc becoming particularly prominent during the 19th-century Nguyễn dynasty. These showed close similarities to varieties found elsewhere in maritime Southeast Asia. Maritime exchange, especially through Hokkien and Teochew merchants, facilitated the spread of comparable preparations to southern China, particularly in Fujian and Guangdong, where shrimp paste and rice flour were combined to produce xiāpiàn.

Regional variations and spread

The development of keropok reflects a broader trend in which local variations of krupuk evolved across Southeast Asia, responding to the availability of cassava, sago, shrimp, fish and other protein sources. This diversity gave rise to numerous regional varieties throughout Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi, Luzon, the Visayas and beyond, with established centres of trade and cultural exchange enabling the spread of ingredients and culinary techniques.

Culinary profile

Preparation and culinary uses

Most varieties of pre-packaged raw krupuk require sun-drying before being deep-fried to achieve their characteristic crisp texture. They are typically cooked in a wok with hot oil, although alternative methods exist; for example, microwaving raw krupuk for about one minute at medium power (~700 W) can produce a lower-fat version. In its uncooked form, krupuk is small, hard, and darker in colour compared to its puffed, cooked state.

Krupuk and kripik may be eaten on their own as snacks or used as accompaniments to enhance the texture of various dishes. Certain types are commonly paired with preparations such as gado-gado, karedok, rujak, asinan, bubur ayam and certain varieties of soto. Krupuk is also the primary ingredient in seblak, a savoury and spicy preparation in which softened krupuk is stir-fried with meat or seafood in a chilli-based sauce.

Variations

Indonesia has a wide variety of krupuk, with types found in almost every region. The most common are prepared from starch combined with seafood such as shrimp, fish or squid, while others make use of rice or animal products such as cattle skin. These preparations are consumed both as standalone snacks and as accompaniments to meals, reflecting regional preferences and available ingredients.

Among the most widespread types are krupuk putih or krupuk kampung, cassava starch crackers common throughout the archipelago and krupuk gendar, a rice-based cracker especially associated with Java. Seafood-based varieties include krupuk udang (prawn crackers), the most internationally recognised type, and krupuk ikan, widely produced in coastal centres such as Palembang, Bangka, Cirebon and Sidoarjo. Regional specialities also include krupuk kemplang from Palembang, amplang from Kalimantan and krupuk kupang, a clam-based cracker from East Java.

Other distinctive forms highlight cultural and culinary diversity. Krupuk kulit (rambak or jangek) is prepared from cattle skin and is especially popular in West Sumatra and Java, while krupuk kulit babi (pork rinds) are associated with non-Muslim-majority regions such as Bali, North Sumatra and North Sulawesi. Local innovations include krupuk melarat from Cirebon, roasted in clean river sand instead of oil, krupuk mie (noodle crackers) used as toppings for asinan, and speciality products such as krupuk petis from Kendal, krupuk telur asin from Brebes, and krupuk siput gonggong from the Riau Islands.

Apart from being a food condiment, there are several derivative foods made of krupuk, scilicet seblak, kerupuk banjur, and kerupuk sambel asem from West Java, also karupuak mie and karupuak jangek kuah gulai from West Sumatra.

In Malaysia, keropok is most often associated with fish and other seafood, reflecting the country's coastal food traditions. It is widely available in markets and roadside stalls, eaten as a snack or served alongside meals, usually with dipping sauces such as chilli. Production is closely tied to fishing communities, where keropok has long formed part of local food culture and small-scale economies.

Among the many varieties, keropok kering is widely produced across different states and sold throughout the country, with common flavours including ikan tamban (sardine), ikan parang (wolf herring), udang merah (red prawn) and udang putih (white prawn). Distinct regional specialities include keropok lekor, a chewy fish cracker emblematic of Terengganu, is usually eaten freshly fried and is also known as keropok gote in Kelantan. Keropok sira refers to fish crackers coated in a sweet and spicy glaze, particularly associated with the east coast of Malay Peninsula. In Sabah, amplang is a popular nugget-shaped fish cracker characteristic of the coastal town of Tawau.