Lebanese Forces

Foundation

A meeting was convened by members of the Lebanese Front on 30 August 1976. The success of the Siege of Tal al-Zaatar being due to the combined forces of the Kataeb Regulatory Forces, Tigers Militia, Lebanese Youth Movement (MKG), Al-Tanzim, and the Guardians of the Cedars convinced the Lebanese Front leaders, especially Etienne Saqr and Bachir Gemayel, that a unitary militia was needed to further face their enemies. Most importantly, the militia leaders were wary of the increased Syrian presence. During this meeting, the Lebanese Forces would be founded with Bachir Gemayel elected as its leader. This new Lebanese Forces militia was meant to centralize the right-wing Christian forces, improve organization, and would allow to later bring end to years of infighting that had been going between the different right-wing militias.

History

The LF Under Bachir Gemayel (1976–1982)

Following the escalation of the Lebanese Civil War, Christian militias in East Beirut and surrounding areas began coordinating their military efforts against Palestinian armed groups and allied Lebanese factions. After the Battle of Tel al-Zaatar in August 1976, leaders of several Christian militias agreed to create a unified military organization, creating the Lebanese Forces. This initiative was led by Bachir Gemayel, who worked with Fawzi Mahfouz, the leader of Al-Tanzim, to further the unification of the Christian militias that were involved in the battle.

In July 1978, fighting broke out between Syrian forces and Christian militias in Beirut, leading to the Hundred Days' War. The confrontation turned into a major conflict between Syria and the Lebanese Christian militias, with the latter seeking to preserve their military and political influence and resist Syrian influence in Lebanon.

In June 1982, Israel invaded Lebanon, arguing that a military intervention was necessary to root out PLO guerrillas from the southern part of the country. Israeli forces eventually moved towards Beirut and laid siege to the city, aiming to reshape the Lebanese political landscape and force the PLO out of Lebanon. The Israeli forces had demanded that Gemayel and the Lebanese Forces play a larger role in Israel’s invasion of Beirut however, Gemayel would refuse. In the end, the only action the Lebanese Forces would take during the Israeli invasion of Beirut would be the battle against the Syrian forces occupying the Lebanese University - Faculty of Science in Hadath. The Lebanese Forces would come out victorious successfully expelling the Syrian forces from the university.

After the PLO had been expelled from the country and moved its headquarters to Tunisia, in a negotiated agreement, Gemayel became the youngest man to ever be elected president of Lebanon. He was elected by the parliament in August; most Muslim members of parliament boycotted the vote.

On 3 September 1982, during the meeting, Menachem Begin demanded that Gemayel sign a peace treaty with Israel as soon as he took office in return for Israel's earlier support of Lebanese Forces and he also told Gemayel that the IDF would stay in South Lebanon if the Peace Treaty was not directly signed. Gemayel was furious with Begin and told him that the Lebanese Forces did not fight for seven years and did not sacrifice thousands of soldiers to free Lebanon from the Syrian Army and the PLO so that Israel could take their place. The meeting ended in rage and both sides were not happy with each other.

Post-Bachir Gemayel Era (1982–1986)

After the Israeli invasion, the IDF troops settled in the Chouf and Aley from party militias, the Lebanese Forces returned to the Christian villages which had been occupied by the PSP for seven years, and many Christian civilians from the districts returned after having fled earlier in the war. However, soon after, clashes broke out between the Lebanese Forces and the Druze militias, who had now taken over the districts and had earlier kicked out the Christian inhabitants. The main Druze militiamen came from the Progressive Socialist Party, led by Walid Jumblatt, in alliance with the Syrian Army and Palestinian militants who had not departed Lebanon in 1982. For months, the two fought what would later be known as the "Mountain War." At the peak of the battle, Israeli troops infamously abandoned the area, handing the best tactical positions over to the Druze militias and their allies as punishment for the Christians' refusal to sign the 17 May peace agreement with Israel, and leaving the Christian forces to fight.

At the same time, a small number of ill-equipped Lebanese Forces troops also fought battles against the Palestinian and Druze militias and the Syrian troops east of the southern city of Sidon. The outcome was also a Progressive Socialist Party victory and a contiguous Druze Chouf district with access to Lebanese sea ports.

Jumblatt's militia then overstepped itself by advancing further into Souk El Gharb, a village also held by the Lebanese Forces. After fierce battles and severe casualties, the attackers were pushed back. However, the Lebanese Forces eventually handed over their positions in Souk El Gharb to the Lebanese army which had great interests in defending the town due to the strategic importance it holds for the army and the Lebanese government, as the town lies on the flanks of the Ministry of Defense and the Presidential Palace. After the retreat, the Lebanese Forces freed up more than 2,500 fighters, including elite units to fight on other fronts.

On 9 October 1984, Fadi Frem would be replaced as commander in chief by Gemayel’s nephew Fouad Abou Nader. His election was supported by Amin Gemayel, and the Kataeb, who sought to establish his influence over the Lebanese Forces. Fadi Frem and Amin Gemayel were in disagreement in regards to Syria as Amin was more reconciliatory while Frem was strict in his refusal to deal with the Syrians.

The LF under Samir Geagea (1986–1994)

Two rival governments contended for recognition following Amine Gemayel's departure from the Presidency in September 1988, one a mainly Christian government and the other a government of Muslims and Lebanese Leftists. The Lebanese Forces initially supported the military Christian government led by Gen. Michel Aoun, the commander of the Lebanese Army. However, clashes erupted between the Lebanese Forces and the Lebanese Army under the control of Michel Aoun on 14 February 1989. These clashes were stopped, and after a meeting in Bkerké, the Lebanese Forces handed the national ports which it controlled to Aoun's government under pressure from the Lebanese National Army.

Geagea initially supported Aoun's "Liberation War" against the Syrian army, but then agreed to the Taif Agreement, which was signed by the Lebanese deputies on 24 October 1989 in Saudi Arabia and demanded an immediate ceasefire. Aoun's main objection to the Taif Agreement was its vagueness as to Syrian withdrawal from the country. He rejected it vowing that he "would not sign over the country." Fierce fighting in East Beirut broke out between the two, called the "Elimination War" on 31 January 1990.

Territory Handover to the LAF

On 1 April 1990, following an agreement between Geagea and Hrawi, General Elie Hayek (who had been appointed commander of the Mount Lebanon governorate two weeks prior) was mandated by the executive to begin the transfer of military and political administrations in the Christian enclave from the LF to the West Beirut government. The territories in the Christian North Governorate and East Beirut would remain under complete LF control, in addition to the 30000 reservist 10000 active men strong militia remain intact for the moment. In response, Aoun announced that he would not accept any alliance between the two, and transferring the regions of the Metn was thus impossible due to the raging Elimination War.

To further demonstrate his commitment to Taif and willingness to extend civilian administration in "Marounistan", Geagea placed Hayek's bureau at the LF HQ in Jounieh.

Following the defeat and surrender of Aoun at Baabda on 13 October 1990, the LAF under Hayek's command began extending its influence South into the Metn and Baabda.

On 30 April 1991 – final date imposed by the government for the total surrender of weapons and heavy artillery – all LF areas were ceded to the army command for the first time since 1975.

The Second Republic (1990–2005)

After Aoun surrendered on 13 October 1990 to the rival Syrian-backed President Hrawi, Geagea was offered ministerial posts in the new government. He refused several times, because he was opposed to Syrian interference in Lebanese affairs, and his relationship with the new government deteriorated.

On 23 March 1994, the Lebanese government headed by Rafic Hariri ordered the dissolution of the LF. On 21 April 1994, Geagea was arrested on charges of setting a bomb in a church at Zouk Mikael, of instigating acts of violence, and of committing assassinations during the Lebanese Civil War. Although he was acquitted of the first charge, Geagea was subsequently arrested and sentenced to life imprisonment on several different counts, including the assassination of former Prime Minister Rashid Karami in 1987. He was incarcerated in solitary confinement, with his access to the outside world severely restricted. Amnesty International criticized the conduct of the trials and demanded Geagea's release, and Geagea's supporters argued that the Syrian-controlled Lebanese government had used the alleged crimes as a pretext for jailing Geagea and banning an anti-Syrian party.

Many members of the Lebanese Forces were arrested and brutally tortured in the period of 1993–1994. At least one died in Syrian custody and many others were severely injured.

Military structure

Command

Initially allocated at the Kataeb Party's offices in Achrafieh, the LF Headquarters was relocated in August 1976 by Bachir Gemayel to an abandoned hospital at the Karantina neighborhood located east of the Port of Beirut, where it stayed until 1986, before being moved to its final location at the coastal town of Amsheet.

Early field organization 1977–1985

By the early 1980s, the LF command had built up a force of some 15,000 well-armed militiamen, and claimed that they could mobilize a total Christian army of 40,000, complete with Israeli-supplied tanks and artillery.

Late war and post-war field organization 1986–1994

LF ground forces' strength by the late 1980s peaked at 14,500 full-time regulars (although other sources list a slightly higher number, about 15,000) and 30,000 part-time reservists, totalling 44,500 men and women equipped with an impressive though disparate arsenal of 100 tanks, 200 APCs and 150 artillery pieces of various types.

Branches of Service

The LF was structured along conventional lines, comprising several branches of service and support units, most of them inherited from the old Kataeb Regulatory Forces. Specialized technical services consisted of:

Infantry Corps (Arabic: Silah al-Moushat)

Armoured Corps (Arabic: Silah al-Moudara'a)

Tank Corps (Arabic: Fourousiya)

Artillery Corps (Arabic: Silah al-Madfa'aiya) – the LF artillery branch, formed in 1977.

Signal Corps (Arabic: Silah al-Ichara)

Naval Units (Arabic: Silah al-Bahriya) – the LF naval service, established in 1978, being employed as a shock force for military operations and equipped with over a dozen sea crafts of various types.

Women Corps (Arabic: Nizamyyat)

Military Engineering Corps (Arabic: Handassa Askariya or Silah al-Handassa) – the LF engineering branch, formed in 1981.

Logistics Corps (Arabic: Daeem)

Rescue Service (Arabic: Wahadat al-Isa'af) – the LF medical support and casualty evacuation unit, established in 1981.

Military Police (Arabic: Shorta al-A'askariya) – the LF regular provost corps, created in 1980 out of the earlier SKS security companies of the Kataeb Regulatory Forces. They wore a red left sleeve brassard with white MP letters and a red circumferential band around their helmets with white MP letters superimposed on the front. Military policemen also wore white pistol belts and holsters.

Elite units

Snow Units (Arabic: Silah al-Tazalouj) – the LF Mountain troops' corps, specialized in Mountain warfare.

LF Marines – an Israeli-trained naval infantry unit specialized in seaborne infiltration, amphibious warfare and reconnaissance (Ranger) operations. The Marines also operated in conjunction with the LF Naval Service over a dozen small watercraft. They wore light blue berets.

Force Sadem or Strike Force and Shock unit (Arabic: Wahadat al-Sadm) – a hand-picked company-sized para-commando formation, one of the few units in the region capable of conducting sea, air and land operations. The unit was known to be the best trained and one of the most elite unit during the war. Known for their hard training, and the 40 days of hell when they were isolated in the wild for 40 days without any provisions. They were trained by a US Army green beret. And participated in training by the US, Britain, France, and Jordan. At the beginning in 1986 they consisted of 11 men, then they tried to expand the unit, thousands of men participated in the training, they only managed to expand it to 30/40 men. Wore a red beret.

101st Parachute Unit or 101st Parachute Company (Arabic: Wahadat al-Mazaliyin) – a company-sized airborne-qualified Ranger unit formed in 1984, whose members underwent jump-training in Israel and the United States.

Special Force Unit 77 (Arabic: Wahdat al-Quwwat al-Khasat Sabeat wa Sabeun) or Battalion 77 (Arabic: Katibat Sabeat wa Sabein) – a battalion-sized light infantry unit formed in 1982–1984.

Adonis Defense Units (Arabic: Wahadat al-Difa'a 'Adonis) – a battalion-sized Commando unit formed in 1980-1981, notable for being among the first to integrate female combatants into dedicated commando training sessions.

Defense Brigade (Arabic: Liwa al-Difa'a) – regimental-sized mechanized infantry unit set up in 1990, which consisted of the 61st, 62nd and 63rd battalions. The brigade was never brought to strength, since only the former two battalions were constituted and the third one was not even raised prior to the unit's disbandement in 1991.

Intelligence and security

Civil Police (Arabic: Shorta al-Madaniyya)

Security Agency (Arabic: Jihaz al-Aman) – the LF counter-espionnage and military intelligence service, established in 1978.

List of LF commanders

LF supreme commanders

Bachir Gemayel (1976–1982)

Fadi Frem (1982–1984)

Fouad Abou Nader (1984–1985)

Elie Hobeika (1985–1986)

Samir Geagea (1986–1994)

LF chiefs-of-staff

George Freiha – Chief-of-Staff to Bachir Gemayel.

Fadi Frem (1980–1982)

Fouad Abou Nader (1982–1984)

Elias Zayek (1984–1985)

Samir Geagea (1985–1987)

General Fouad Malek (1987–1994)

Heads of the Gamma Group

Raymond Arab (1978–1981)

Najib Fayad (1981–1984)

Advisers to LF supreme commanders

Karim Pakradouni (1983–1984)

Najib Fayad (1984–1985)

LF junior commanders

Akram Kozah – 2nd commander of the SADM unit.

Alex Mteini

Antoine Bridi (a.k.a. 'Toto')

Assaad Chaftari (a.k.a. 'Asso') – LF intelligence chief.

Assaad Said – Deputy Chief-of-Staff for Logistics (1980).

Raji Abdo (a.k.a. 'Captain')

Pierre Rizk (a.k.a. 'Akram')

Pierre Jabbour – 3rd commander of the SADM unit.

Boutros Khawand

Elias Khoury

Elias Zayek

Hanna Atik (a.k.a. 'Hanoun') – Founder and commander of the SADM unit.

Kayrouz Baraket – Commander of the LF infantry and Special Forces.

Joseph Abou Fadel - Field Commander of the LF in the Matn District.

Joseph Eddeh (a.k.a. 'Joe' Eddeh)

Joseph Elias

Jocelyne Khoueiry – Commander of the LF Women Corps.

Massoud Achkar (a.k.a. 'Poussy' Achkar) – Field Commander of the LF in Achrafieh, Beirut.

Nader Succar

Naji Butrus – Field Commander of the LF in Ain El Remmaneh, Beirut.

Training facilities

Military Academy

To train LF officer cadets, a Military Academy, later renamed the Bachir Gemayel Institute (Arabic: Maehad Bachir Gemayel), was set up in 1985 at a disused Maronite monastery in the town of Ghosta, located 20 km east of Beirut in the Keserwan District.

Weapons and equipment

The Lebanese Forces were financed, trained and armed mainly by Israel, though they also received covert military support from France, the United States, United Kingdom, South Africa, Jordan and Iraq. In addition to aid from the Israelis, the LF purchased a large part of their military supplies on the international black market, and also made use of captured stocks from the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), the Syrian Army and even the Lebanese Army.

Infantry weapons

Lebanese Forces's militiamen were provided with a variety of small-arms, comprising M1 Garand (or its Italian-produced copy, the Beretta Model 1952) and SKS semi-automatic rifles, plus MAT-49, Škorpion vz. 61, Carl Gustaf m/45 (or its Egyptian-produced version, dubbed the "Port Said"), Walther MPL, Sterling L2A3/Mark 4, Spectre M4, Uzi (MP-2, Mini Uzi and Micro Uzi variants), MAC-10, MAC-11 (sub-compact version of the MAC-10), Heckler & Koch MP5 and Heckler & Koch MP5K (shortened version of the MP5) submachine guns. An undisclosed number of OTs-02 Kiparis SMGs were reportedly obtained from Russia in the early 1990s, though it remains unclear if they were ever used in action by the LF.

Several models of assault rifles were employed, such as M16A1, FN FAL (variants included the Israeli-produced 'lightened' ROMAT), Heckler & Koch G3, Vz. 58, AK-47 and AKM (other variants included the Zastava M70, Chinese Type 56, Romanian Pistol Mitralieră model 1963/1965, Bulgarian AKK/AKKS and former East German MPi-KMS-72 assault rifles). Limited quantities of the AMD-65, CAR-15 and SIG SG 543 carbines, M16A2, SIG SG 542, FN CAL, Heckler & Koch HK33, Heckler & Koch G41, Heckler & Koch HK53 (Compact version of the HK33) and ArmaLite AR-18 assault rifles were also acquired, being mostly employed by LF elite commando units on special operations.

Inevitably, this variety of assault rifles and carbines of different calibers in service within LF combat units naturally caused logistic difficulties to the LF's supply corps, so the LF Command decided after 1986 to simplify its small-arms inventory by standardizing on the FN FAL, M16A1, and AKM assault rifles for its infantry units, though this still posed problems in providing ammunition and replacement parts up to the end of the War.

Shotguns consisted of Mossberg 500 12-gauge (20.2 mm), Remington Model 870 Police Magnum 12-gauge (20.2 mm), and Franchi SPAS-12 and Franchi SPAS-15 semi-automatic models. Sniper rifles were commonly used, and models included the Dragunov SVD-63, Tabuk, M21, Remington Model 700, Savage 10FP/110FP, Enfield L42A1 (military version) and Enforcer (Police version) rifles, and the Heckler & Koch PSG1.

A wide variety of handguns models were used, including Smith & Wesson Model 10, Smith & Wesson Model 13, Smith & Wesson Model 14, Smith & Wesson Model 15, Smith & Wesson Model 17 and Smith & Wesson Model 19 revolvers, Mauser M2 semi-automatic handguns, Walther PPK pistols, Heckler & Koch VP70, Heckler & Koch P7 and Heckler & Koch P9 pistols, SIG P210, SIG-Sauer P220 and SIG-Sauer P225 pistols, Astra A-80, Astra A-90 and Astra A-100 pistols, Llama M82 pistols, Star 30M, and Star A, B, B Super and P pistols, Star Ultrastar, Star Firestar and Star Megastar pistols, Taurus PT92, PT99 and PT100 pistols, Beretta M1951 pistols, MAB PA-15 pistols, Colt M1911A1 Semi-Automatic Pistols, Para-Ordnance P14-45 (Canadian-produced version of the M1911A1 pistol), FN Browning Hi-Power pistols, FN Browning BDM pistols, FN Browning BDA380 pistols, FN Browning HP-DA/BDA9 pistols, Tokarev TT-33 pistols, Makarov PM/PMM pistols, and CZ 52, CZ 75, CZ 82/83 and CZ 85 pistols.

Armoured vehicles

The Lebanese Forces' early armoured corps in 1977 inherited a motley collection of captured light tanks, Charioteer tanks, M42A1 Duster SPAAGs, APCs, and some models of homebuilt armoured cars from the old Kataeb Regulatory Forces or handed over by the other, recently incorporated Christian factions. Thanks to the steady influx of Israeli aid, it grew from a small battalion to a powerful armoured corps by June 1982, capable of aligning some forty M50 Super Sherman medium tanks, twenty-two Ti-67 TIRAN (Israeli-modified T-54/55s) MBTs (other sources list a total of either thirty-six or forty Ti-67s on the LF inventory), M3/M9 Zahlam half-tracks, M113 and BTR-152 APCs. In addition, twenty T-54/55 tanks were later captured from the Syrian Army in the course of the 1982 Lebanon War, being repaired and subsequently taken into LF service. Following the PLO's withdrawal from west Beirut in October 1982, the LF salvaged seven UR-416 armoured cars left behind by the departing Palestinian forces, from which one vehicle was later captured by the Popular Nasserist Organization (PNO) militia during the battle for the Sidon bridgehead in 1985.

The collapse of the Lebanese Army's 4th Infantry Brigade in February 1984 allowed the LF to make up for their own losses incurred in the 1983–84 Mountain War by seizing seven M48A5 MBTs, five AMX-13 light tanks, twelve Panhard AML-90 armoured cars, and some M113 APCs. Later in the war, sixty-four T-54A, T-55A and T-62 tanks, along with fifty M113 APCs modified as mortar carriers (captured from the Islamic Republic of Iran Army during the Iran–Iraq War) and eighteen BTR-60PB (8x8) APCs were received from Iraq via Jordan in 1986–89; a few M577 command vehicles, AMX-VCI and Panhard M3 VTT armoured personnel carriers were also seized from the Lebanese Army in 1990. The LF also fielded three Soviet-built ZSU-23-4M1 Shilka SPAAGs captured from the PLO in West Beirut early in 1982, which they employed in their battles for control of east Beirut during the Elimination War in January–October 1990.

Transport, liaison, and recovery vehicles

Besides tracked and wheeled AFVs, the LF also relied on a wide range of softskin, all-terrain military and 'militarized' civilian vehicles for both troop and supply transport. Like many other Lebanese militias, the LF continued to field a sizable force of gun trucks and technicals armed with Heavy Machine-guns, recoilless rifles, Anti-Aircraft autocannons, anti-tank rockets and light MBRLs. The light vehicles employed in this role included Soviet UAZ-469, US M151A1/A2 jeeps, US Willys M38A1 MD and South Korean Kia KM410 and Keohwa KH-5GA1 jeeps, to Land Rover Series II-III, Santana Series III (Spanish-produced version of the Land-Rover series III), Morattab Series IV (Iranian-produced unlicensed version of the Land-Rover long wheelbase series III), Toyota Land Cruiser (J40/J42), Chevrolet C-10/C-15 Cheyenne and Chevrolet C-20 Scottsdale light pickup trucks, Dodge D series (3rd generation) and Dodge Power Wagon W200 pickup trucks, Israeli-produced AIL M325 Command Cars ('Nun-Nun'), and Mercedes-Benz Unimog 404 and 416 light trucks (captured from the PLO in 1982).

For logistical support, pickups and light, medium and heavy transportation trucks were employed, mostly Toyota Land Cruiser (J42) hardtop, Toyota Land Cruiser (J45), Toyota Land Cruiser (J70) hardtop, AIL M325, M880/M890 Series CUCV, Chevrolet C-20, and Datsun 620 Custom 1976 pickup trucks, Unimog light trucks, GAZ-66, Chevrolet C-50 medium-duty, Dodge F600 medium-duty and GMC C4500 medium-duty trucks, and GMC C7500 heavy-duty cargo trucks, US M35A2 2½-ton (6x6) military trucks, M813 5-ton (6x6) cargo trucks and Faun L912/21-MUN heavy cargo trucks. In addition, AIL M325 ambulance version cars, Chevrolet/GMC G-Series third generation vans, Volkswagen Type 2 Transporter minibuses and Nissan Patrol 160-Series (3rd generation) 5-door wagon/vans were used as military ambulances. The Israelis also provided to the LF a number of M88A1 medium recovery vehicles, which served alongside some M578 light recovery vehicles seized from the Lebanese Army and captured VT-55KS Armoured Recovery Vehicles from the Syrian Army. Ratrack dual track snow coaches were employed by the LF in the snowy environment of Mount Lebanon mountains. The LF fielded three ex-US Army XM523E2 Heavy Equipment Transporters (HET) to transport its medium tanks and MBTs.

Artillery

The LF also fielded an impressive artillery corps. Starting with some British QF Mk III 25-Pounder field guns seized from the Government Forces, they received four French DEFA D921/GT-2 90mm anti-tank guns (mounted on M3/M9 half tracks), ZiS-3 76.2mm anti-tank guns (mounted on GAZ-66 trucks) and BF-50 (M-50) 155mm Howitzers and M-30 122mm (M-1938) Howitzers from the Israelis, followed in the 1980s by D-44 85 mm anti-tank guns, M-46 130mm (M-1954), Type 59-1 130 mm (a Chinese-made gun derivered from the Soviet M-46), eighteen BS-3 100mm (M-1944), eighteen D-30 122 mm (some re-mounted on turretless T-54 tanks) and D-20 152 mm Howitzers of Soviet origin supplied by Israel, Jordan and Iraq. A number of FH-70 155 mm howitzers were also seized from the Lebanese Army in February 1984.

The two latter Countries also provided to the LF substantial quantities of Multi-Barrel Rocket Launchers (MBRLs), notably the BM-21 Grad 122 mm system mounted on Russian Ural-375D (6x6) military trucks (of which eighteen were delivered by Iraq); such MBRLs could also be found installed on the back of Mercedes-Benz Unimog 406 (4x4) light trucks. The LF also employed Chinese Type 63 107 mm towed MBRLs captured from the PLO in 1982 (with some being re-installed on the rear tray of South Korean Keohwa M-5GA1 Jeeps, Israeli-made 'Nun-Nun' Command cars, and on turretless T-54 tanks) as well as Iraqi-supplied Romanian APR-40/Yugoslav RO-40 128mm systems mounted on DAC-665T (6x6) trucks. Iraq also provided a small number of Frog-7 short-range artillery rockets mounted on wheeled 9P113 transporter erector launchers (TEL).

These same countries also gave the LF limited quantities of heavy mortars, such as the Israeli-made Soltam M-65 120 mm and M-66 160 mm heavy mortars mounted on ex-IDF half-tracks and modified M113 APCs, and even received from Iraq in 1988 three Soviet 2S4 240mm towed breech-loading heavy mortars, to which were added one or two Chinese-manufactured 240mm mortars the LF had captured in 1982 following the Israeli invasion.

Soviet KPV 14.5mm, ZPU (ZPU-1, ZPU-2, ZPU-4) 14.5mm and ZU-23-2 23mm AA autocannons, British Bofors 40mm L/60 anti-aircraft guns and Soviet AZP S-60 57 mm anti-aircraft guns (mostly mounted on technicals, M113 and BTR-152 APCs and M3/M9 half-tracks) were employed in both air defense and direct fire supporting roles. Man-portable, shoulder-launched Soviet SA-7 Grail surface-to-air missiles (SAM) were also used by the LF, possibly obtained from Iraq.

Sea craft

Apart from its ground forces, the LF maintained a naval branch equipped with over a dozen sea crafts of various types. The inventory comprized two British-made Fairey Marine Tracker MkII Class patrol boats previously seized from the Lebanese Navy in January 1980, two Israeli-made Dvora-class fast patrol boats and five Dabur-1 class patrol boats acquired via the Mossad that same year and eight French-made Zodiac rubber inflatable boats, plus an unspecified number of converted civilian fishing crafts armed with Heavy machine-guns and RPG-7s.

Aircraft

In the late 1980s, the LF Command made plans to raise an air wing equipped mainly with light attack helicopters. Several student pilots were sent to Iraq and other countries to attend helicopter pilot courses, and later on the LF received from Iraq three Aérospatiale SA 342L Gazelle helicopter gunships. The program was eventually interrupted, then canceled when the Elimination War broke out in January 1990. It is not clear if any of the Gazelles were actually delivered by the Iraqis prior to the end of the civil war in October 1990, although it has been reported that the LF illegally sold three helicopters of this same type to Serbia in 1991.

Uniforms and insignia

Fatigue clothing

Like the other Lebanese Front militias, the LF retained the Lebanese Army olive green fatigues (a special domestic variant of the U.S. Army OG-107 cotton sateen utilities) as their standard field dress, but in the late 1970's it began to be replaced by the IDF olive drab (OD) Uniform "B" (Hebrew: Madei Bet) cotton fatigues provided by Israel, which eventually became the militia's standard service, combat and work uniform. Nevertheless, period photos show that the early ex-Lebanese Army OG fatigues and the newly-received Israeli OD uniforms were worn interchangeably by LF personnel until 1982.

Surplus Olive Green U.S. Army M1967 Jungle Utility Uniforms were worn by some LF officers, whilst U.S. Army OG-107 cotton sateen utilities' trousers and OG-106 Nomex two-piece flying suits were a common affection among members of LF elite units, such as the Marines.

Camouflage uniforms consisted of "Duck Hunter" and "Waves" (or "Swirl") patterns fatigues of South Korean origin, Czechoslovak Vz 60 "Salamander" (Mlok) pattern fatigues, Syrian or captured PLO Lizard horizontal and vertical patterns' fatigues, Vietnam War-era Tigerstripe (Tadpole Sparse) pattern fatigues, Iraqi Highland pattern (a.k.a. "Iraqi Woodland") fatigues, Italian M1929 Telo mimetico fatigues, Syrian copies of the Pakistani Arid Brushstroke (nicknamed "Wisp") fatigues, U.S. Woodland Battle Dress Uniforms (BDU) captured from the Lebanese Army or locally produced cheap copies, and commercial "Jigsaw" (or "Puzzle") pattern rain jackets of Belgian or French origin.

Olive Green US M-1965 field jackets (either taken from Lebanese Army stocks or provided as aid by Israel) and OG IDF Dubon Parkas, and even ex-PLO Iraqi copies of the olive-brown woollen Jordanian Commando Sweater (a.k.a. 'woolly-pully') provided with breast pockets and shoulder straps, plus several other types of civilian and military sweaters and pullovers, were worn in cold weather. LF mountain troops were issued two-piece white snowsuits while operating in the snow-covered mountains of Mount Lebanon during the winter months.

Headgear

Standard headgear for all-ranks was a military beret of French pattern, made of wool in one piece attached to a black leather rim with two black tightening straps at the back. In the LF, berets were worn pulled to the left in typical French fashion (although some LF male and female personnel preferred to wear their berets pulled to the right, contrary to custom), with the color sequence as follows: General Service, Armoured units and some Commando formations – black; Paratroopers, Adonis Defense Units and al-Maghaweer Commandos – maroon; Force Sadem Para-commandos – scarlet red; Marines – light blue.

Intended to be worn only on formal occasions or for walking-out, LF berets were rarely seen in the field, being often replaced by ex-Lebanese Army Olive Green OG-106 Baseball caps, IDF "Old style" Olive Drab fatigue caps, locally-produced baseball caps made of Israeli Olive Drab cloth (possibly salvaged from discarded fatigues), and IDF "Kova raful" Olive Drab bush hats, with camouflage patrol caps and bucket hats in the "Waves/Swirl", "Duck Hunter" and "Tigerstripe" patterns being worn by LF Airborne and Commando troopers; U.S. Army BDU caps and Boonie hats in the U.S. Woodland camouflage pattern seized from the Lebanese Army were also used. In addition to fatigue or patrol caps, bush hats and berets, fur-lined cloth bomber hats, civilian knitted woollen caps and military commando caps of various colours were worn in the winter.

Footwear

Initially, the black leather combat boots worn by LF militiamen were the US Army M-1967 model with DMS "ripple" pattern rubber sole and the French Army "Rangers" BM65 (French: Rangers de l'Armée Française BM65) with double-buckle ankle cuff, both standard issue in the Lebanese Armed Forces, obtained either directly from LAF stocks or acquired as surplus. Such early combat footwear was partially superseded by IDF Hot Weather Tactical Boot models, the Combat Black light 825 Boots and the Paratrooper Brown light 8251 Boots, which were provided in considerable numbers by the Israelis. Several models of civilian sneakers or "trainers" and "chucks" were also worn by LF personnel on occasion.

Helmets and body armour

In the field, LF infantrymen could be found wearing a variety of helmet types, consisting of US M-1 and French M1951 NATO (French: Casque Mle 1951 OTAN) steel helmets taken from Lebanese Army stocks or provided by Israel, who also supplied Orlite Industries Ltd composite fibreglass OR-201 Model 76 ballistic helmets, which partially replaced the earlier steel types. Armoured crews, depending on the vehicle they manned, received the OR-601 and OR-603 tanker's helmets in ballistic Kevlar (Israeli copies of the US fibreglass "bone dome" Combat Vehicle Crewman (CVC) T-56-6 helmet and CVC DH-132 helmet, respectively) or Soviet TSh-4M black tanker's padded cloth helmets. LF combat troops were also issued with flak jackets, either the Ballistic Nylon US M-1952/69 'Half-collar' version or the Israeli-produced Kevlar Rabintex Industries Ltd Type III RAV 200 Protective Vest (Hebrew: "Shapats").

Accoutrements

Standard web gear consisted on the IDF 1950's "Old style" Tan-Khaki cotton canvas equipment (similar in design to the British Army's 58 pattern webbing) and the newer Olive Green (OG) Cordura-type Nylon Ephod Combat Vest, which were provided in substantial quantities by the Israelis since 1978. Photographic evidence shows that LF militiamen could be found wearing a variety of other web gear types, including the British 58 pattern webbing, the U.S. Army M-1956 load-carrying equipment (LCE) in khaki cotton canvas and the all-purpose lightweight individual carrying equipment (ALICE) in OG Nylon captured from the Lebanese Army, ChiCom Type 56 chest rigs in khaki or olive green cotton fabric for the Soviet SKS semi-automatic rifle, Soviet three-cell and four-cell AK-47 magazine pouches in khaki or OG canvas, plus several variants of locally made, multi-pocket chest rigs and assault vests in khaki and OG cloth, canvas or Nylon.

Anti-tank teams issued with the RPG-7 rocket launcher received the correspondent Soviet rocket bag models in khaki canvas, the Gunner Backpack 6SH12, the Assistant Gunner Backpack and the Munitions Bag 6SH11, with Polish and East German versions in rubberized canvas being employed as well. LF infantry and Commando troops were also issued with the IDF Infantry Combat Pack or the Cotton Canvas Assault Backpack and the smaller IDF 1950's "Old style" Tan-Khaki Cotton Canvas Infantry Backpack.

LF Military policemen on patrol or assigned ceremonial duties were issued the IDF Military Police white canvas pistol belt and whitened leather pistol holster. Locally-made, personalized black or brown leather holsters and gunbelts were sometimes worn by members of LF Commando units.

Insignia

An olive green, olive drab, dark green, black or yellow cloth embroidered nametape bearing "Lebanese Forces" inscribed in yellow, black or white Arabic script, with the LF logo – a miniature detailed green and brown Lebanese Cedar tree inserted on a red circle – set in the middle was frequently worn above the left shirt pocket of combat fatigues by all-ranks. The Lebanese Forces nametape was usually worn sew-on, although a removable version made of synthetic material secured by a Velcro fastener was introduced very late in the War and saw only limited use.

The LF did develop a standard beret cap badge, featuring a yellow enamelled metal disc edged red with a green and brown Lebanese Cedar tree in the centre, inserted on a circular wreath consisting of interlocking laurel leaves, and superimposed on a upward pointing sword (or bayonet); issued to all-ranks, the LF beret badge was worn placed above the right eye in the usual French manner.