Peruvian cuisine

History

Peruvian cuisine reflects the influences of indigenous ingredients and techniques, the viceregal era, and immigration from Europe, Africa and Asia.

Pre-Columbian era

Local ingredients included potatoes, aji pepper, corn, quinoa and various Andean grains. By this time, sophisticated agricultural techniques had been developed that allowed the local inhabitants to grow and cultivate crops in the challenging terrain of the Andes.

Colonial era

The arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century brought about significant changes to Peruvian cuisine. The Spanish brought with them new ingredients, such as onions, garlic, and various meats, and introduced new cooking techniques, such as frying and sautéing.

African and Asian influences

In the late 19th century, Peru experienced an influx of African and Asian immigrants who brought with them their culinary traditions. African slaves introduced dishes such as tacu-tacu, a mix of rice and beans that was fried and served with steak or eggs. Chinese immigrants created dishes such as lomo saltado, a stir-fry of beef, onions, tomatoes, and French fries, which has become a popular dish in Peru and globally.

Modern era

Peruvian cuisine is known around the world with some of its the most distinguishable ingredients being aji amarillo peppers, huacatay herb, and Peruvian corn. In 2004, the Peruvian government launched the "Gastronomy Project" to promote the country's culinary traditions and encourage the development of the country's restaurant industry. In 2008, the Peruvian government declared June 28 as "National Ceviche Day" in recognition of the dish's importance to Peruvian cuisine.

Crops

Peru is considered an important center for the genetic diversity of the world's crops:

Potatoes. Many varieties of potato are native to the Andes mountains. Over 99% of all cultivated potatoes worldwide are descendants of a single subspecies, namely Solanum tuberosum. This subspecies has developed into thousands of varieties that vary by size, shape, color, and other sensory characteristics.

Quinoa, three varieties

Kaniwa

Tarwi, a legume native to the Andes which is similar to the lupin bean

Lima bean

Maca

Oca, a potato-like tuber

Mashua, a potato-like tuber

Ulluco, a potato-like tuber

Caigua, a vegetable with a cucumber-like taste

Capsicum baccatum chile peppers, including ají amarillo and ají limón

Capsicum pubescens, rocoto chile

Capsicum chinense, ají panca and ají mochero/limo

Fruits—Peru has about 20 native fruits that are used in cooking or eaten fresh

The sweet potato is native to the Americas and was domesticated there at least 5,000 years ago. Two varieties of sweet potato are commonly available for sale in the markets, but there are more varieties around the country. One has dry orange flesh and light tan skin and tastes sweet. The other has purple skin, is white and brown inside, and is only moderately sweet. Occasionally another variety, characterized by small tubers and dark skin, is available.

Cultivation of ancient plants

During the colonial period, and continuing up until the Second World War, Peruvian cuisine focused on Spanish models and virtually ignored anything that could be regarded as native or Peruvian. Traditional food plants, which the indigenous people continued to eat, were regarded as "peasant food" to be avoided. These colonial attitudes took a long time to fade. Since the 1970s, there has been an effort to bring these native food plants out of obscurity.

Some plants cultivated by ancient societies of Peru have been rediscovered by modern Peruvians, and are carefully studied by scientists. Due to the characteristics of its land and climate and the nutritional quality of its products, some Peruvian plants may play a vital role in future nutrition. Examples include quinoa (an excellent source of essential amino acids) and kañiwa, which look and cook like cereals but are pseudocereals. Nutritionists are also studying root vegetables, such as maca, and cereals like kiwicha.

Since 1985, NASA has used some of these foods—quinoa, kiwicha and maca—for astronaut meals. Andean ingredients like tubers and quinoa (kinwa in the indigenous language Quechua) have also been promoted by members of Peru's Ministry of Culture and received international endorsements from celebrities like Oprah Winfrey and NASA as a new type of superfood. While Peruvian state actors and celebrity chefs argue that these efforts have created economic opportunity for rural farmers and built international cultural awareness, the commercialization of Andean ingredients has decreased crop biodiversity on indigenous lands. Heightened global demand has caused prices to increase so that these ingredients are becoming less accessible to the native Peruvians.

For many of Peru's inhabitants, these food stocks allow for adequate nutrition, even though living standards are poor. Abandoning many of these staples during the Spanish domination and republican eras lowered nutritional levels.

Peruvian cuisine is often made spicy with ají pepper, a basic ingredient. Peruvian chili peppers are not always spicy but serve to give taste and color to dishes. Rice often accompanies dishes in Peruvian cuisine, and the regional sources of foods and traditions give rise to countless varieties of preparation and dishes.

Regional differences

Peru is a country that holds not just a variety of ethnic mixes since times ranging from the Inca Empire, the Viceroyalty and the Republic, but also a climatic variety of 28 individual climates. The mixing of cultures and the variety of climates differ from city to city so geography, climate, culture and ethnic mix determine the variety of local cuisine.

Coastal areas

The Pacific Ocean is the principal source of aquatic resources for Peru. Peru is one of the world's top two producers and exporters of unusually high-protein fishmeal for use in livestock/aquaculture feed. Its richness in fish and other aquatic life is enormous, and many oceanic plant and animal species can only be found in Peru. As important as the Pacific is to Peru's biodiversity, freshwater biomes such as the Amazon River and Lake Titicaca also play a large role in the ecological make-up of the country.

Every coastal region, being distinct in flora and fauna populations, adapts its cuisine in accordance to the resources available in its waters.

Ceviche, a Peruvian dish of marinated raw fish or seafood typically garnished with herbs and served as an appetizer, with many variations (pure, combination, or mixed with fish and shellfish), provides a good example of regional adaptation. Ceviche is found in almost all Peruvian restaurants on the coast, the shortly marinated seafood morsels are typically served with camote (sweet potato), and kernels of Peruvian choclo serrano. It can also be spelled "cebiche" in Peru. It is the flagship dish of coastal cuisine, and one of the most popular dishes among Peruvians. Ceviche marinade consists of Andean chili peppers, onions, and juices from an aromatic lime variety brought by the Spaniards. Before the Spanish colonists came to Peru, the Moche marinated seafood using fermented juice prepared from local banana passionfruit called Tumbo. Once the Spanish colonists arrived and brought with them citrus fruits, locals started using citrus to marinate their seafood. Ceviche is a spicy dish that consists generally of bite-size pieces of white fish (such as corvina or white sea bass), marinated raw in lime juice mixed with chilis. Ceviche is often served with raw onions, boiled sweet potatoes (camote), and toasted corn (cancha).

Many Peruvians believe that ceviche is an aphrodisiac and hangover cure, the latter possibly due to the fact that it is traditionally consumed with beer. Unlike the adaptations of ceviche made in Mexico and Ecuador, in Peru it is not made with tomatoes. Also popular is Leche de tigre (tiger's milk), which is the Peruvian colloquial name for the marinade used in ceviche. It has a light spicy flavor.

Chupe de camarones (shrimp cioppino) is one of the most popular dishes of Peruvian coastal cuisine. It is made from a thick freshwater shrimp (crayfish) stock soup, potatoes, milk and chili pepper. It is regularly found in Peruvian restaurants specializing in Arequipan cuisine.

Andes

In the valleys and plains of the Andes, the diet is still a traditional one based on corn (maíz), potatoes, and an assortment of tubers. Meat comes from indigenous animals like alpacas and guinea pigs, but also from imported livestock like sheep, cattle and swine.

As with many rural cultures, most of the more elaborate dishes were reserved for festivities, while daily meals were simple affairs. Nowadays, festive dishes are consumed every day by urban dwellers, while rural diets tend to be light on meat and heavy on lahua gruel.

The pachamanca is a distinctive Peruvian dish. Cooked all over the Andean region of Peru, it is made from a variety of meats (including pork and beef), herbs, and a variety of vegetables that are slowly cooked underground on a bed of heated stones. Because of its tedious preparation it is normally only made for celebrations or festivals in the Andes, though recent years have seen the appearance of many "campestre" restaurants in rural areas outside Lima, such as in Cieneguilla.

Andean cooking's main freshwater fish is the trout, raised in fisheries in the region.

Cuy: Guinea pig, which is often served whole, or the meat can be used as filling for foods such as tacos and ravioli.

Cuy chactado: A dish more popular in the highlands is this meal of fried guinea pig. Often the indigenous women of the Peruvian Andes will raise the guinea pigs in their huts. Besides the use of guinea pigs as separate meals, they are often cooked in a Pachamanca with other meats and vegetables.

Olluquito con charqui is another traditional Andean dish. Olluco is a yellowish tuber (Ullucus tuberosus) domesticated by pre-Inca populations, and is visually similar to colorful small Andean potatoes, but with a distinct crunchy texture when cooked. Charqui is the technique employed in the Andean highlands to cure meat by salting, then dehydration (the word "jerky" in English is derived from this Andean (Quechuan) word). The dish is a stew of finely diced ollucos with charqui pieces (traditionally alpaca, or less frequently llama meat, though today it is also very commonly made from sheep), served with white rice.

Amazon

Naturally, Amazonian cuisine is made using the products local to the Amazon rainforest. Although many animal species are hunted for food in the biologically diverse jungle, standouts are the paiche (one of the world's largest freshwater fish), prepared in variety of dishes; many other types of fish like gamitana, sabalo (Salminus hilarii, see Salminus), tucunare, boquichico, palometa, bagre, and many others including the piranha, that are prepared in variety of dishes such as "timbuche" (soup) or "patarashca" (grilled in vegetables); many types of turtles like the motelo (land turtle), and the charapa and taricaya (river turtles). Hunting turtles is prohibited in Peru, therefore turtle-based dishes are scarce and expensive and not sold à la carte in restaurants. Other animals include the majas, the sajino, the agouti and jungle mammals, which are called collectively "carne de monte". The black caiman is also considered a delicacy, but its hunt is forbidden under Peruvian law.

Among the fruits of Peru's jungle is the camu camu, which contains 40 times more vitamin C than the kiwifruit. Non-native fruits such as mango and pineapple and star apple are also in abundance, as well as other jungle fruits like, mammee apple, cherimoya, guanabana, taperiva, copoazu, dry fruits like the aguaje and the hungurahui.

Juane is rice seasoned with turmeric, and chicken wrapped with bijao leaves.

Chapo is a beverage made with sweet plantain.

Other regional dishes

Chalona or charqui is a cured dried meat originally obtained from alpaca. It is also eaten in Bolivia, and was eaten by the Indigenous peoples on the coast and in the highlands of Peru before the arrival of the Spaniards. Today, lamb is often substituted for alpaca meat. It is used as an ingredient in a variety of dishes of the Puno region, Cusco, and Arequipa. It is prepared using recently cured lamb, in which furrows are made with a knife, so the salt can penetrate. Salt penetration is important, because it determines how long the cured meat lasts. The meat is left to dry in the sun and cold nights for almost one month.

Chairo: A traditional soup of the Puno and Arequipa regions. Its origins have been traced to the Collan Indians who live in the Andes of Bolivia and southern Peru. The soup consists of black chuño, aji panca (red chili pepper), sweet potatoes, sheep tripe and chalona.

Ocopa: A dish with some similarities to papas a la huancaina. It consists of boiled and sliced yellow potatoes covered with a sauce of made of aji (chili pepper), the Peruvian herb Tagetes minuta (called huacatay; the herb gives it a vivid green color), ground peanuts, and fresh or white cheese, with sides of lettuce, boiled eggs and olives. At expensive restaurants walnuts are often added, but this is seldom done in Peruvian homes due to the prohibitive cost of walnuts in Peru. The name ocopa is also used to refer to the hot sauce by itself.

Copús is one of the best-known dishes of Piura. Its ingredients are ripe fried bananas, camotes (sweet potatoes), and seasoned hen, turkey, goat, and mutton. The meat is cooked in a furnace under the ground; this method is different from using a pachamanca since the furnace is covered with blankets and clay.

Yuca chupe or cassava soup is one of the variations in which the Peruvians enjoy cassava.

Currently, ostrich meat is being raised on farms in Arequipa, although its consumption is not widespread and limited to urban areas.

Sangrecita: A dish of cooked chicken blood seasoned with garlic, onion, chilli and herbs and commonly served with potatoes, sweet potatoes or cassava.

Chifa

Chifa (from the Mandarin words 吃饭 "chī fàn", meaning "to eat rice") is the Peruvian term for Peruvian-Chinese food (or for a Peruvian-Chinese fusion restaurant). Because many Chinese ingredients are hard to find in Peru, the Chinese modified their cuisine and incorporated many Peruvian elements (mainly Spanish, native and African) into their cuisine, and the popularity of chifa has made it hard to find authentic Chinese cuisine in Peru.

Sweet dishes and desserts

Alfajores: a dessert found in virtually all of Spain's former colonies. It is derived from the versions popular in Spain during the colonial period. The original Spanish recipes, however, have been modified because the original ingredients are expensive in Peru (almonds, honey) or even unobtainable (hazelnuts, lemon rind, coriander seed, etc.). The basic recipe uses a base mix of flour, margarine, and powdered sugar, which is oven-baked. Alfajores consist of two or more layers of this baked pastry, and is usually filled with manjar blanco (a caramel-colored, sweet, creamy filling made with milk and sugar)

Turrones (or nougat) is another originally Spanish dessert. The original Spanish recipe, which contained ingredients that were rare or expensive in Peru (such as almonds, rose water, orange blossom water, honey) were modified in a variety of ways. One common variety found in Lima is Turrón de Doña Pepa, an anise and honey nougat that is traditionally prepared for the Señor de los Milagros (or Lord of Miracles) religious procession, during October.

Almost exclusive to the Andes region is the fruit known as lúcuma. Lúcuma juice, ice cream, and corresponding lúcuma shakes are very popular throughout Peru. Lúcuma ice cream can normally only be found in large US cities (typically in Peruvian restaurants). One popular brand of ice cream in Peru is D'Onofrio, which is owned by Nestlé.

Arroz con leche (rice pudding): Another dessert originally from Spain that can be found in various varieties throughout Latin America. Arroz con leche is one of the more common desserts found in homes and restaurants of modern-day Peru. It consists primarily of cooked rice, cinnamon/nutmeg, raisins, and milk. Rice pudding never has lemon rind as is traditional in the Spanish version. Arroz con leche is usually eaten with Peruvian Mazamorra (jelly-like clove-flavored dessert).

Helados (ice cream): The most common ice cream flavors found in Peru are lucuma, chocolate, vanilla and strawberry. Some more exotic flavors such as camu camu, guaraná and prickly pear can occasionally be found. For other commonly available flavors, however, one needs to purchase imported ice-cream as many of the ingredients are not available in Peru. Peru is one of few countries in the world where the third most popular ice-cream (after vanilla and chocolate) is not strawberry, it is in fact the "nutty" flavored, orange colored lúcuma, which is an exotic fruit grown in quantity only in Peru, and only in recent years being exported in very limited quantities as an exotic flavor (for ice cream and savory sauces) to the US, and available in Europe essentially in food shows.

Beverages

Soft drinks

The most commonly encountered soft drinks in Peru are:

Chicha morada: a clove-flavored beverage prepared from a base of boiled purple maize and a generous amount of powdered cloves, to which sugar, cinnamon and ice are added as it cools. Occasionally chunks of pineapple are added. The taste is reminiscent of old-fashioned clove-flavored candy. Chicha de jora is a beer made with corn (see below)

Inca Kola: a lemon verbena flavored soda (verbena de limon), which is a cultural icon, served from the most humble to the most exclusive tables nationwide. Yellow in color, it is very sweet (with a candy-like taste). Inca Kola beat out Coca-Cola in Peruvian sales, the only other national beverage apart from Irn-Bru in Scotland to beat Coca-Cola in the world. This is mainly due to nationalism prevalent among Peruvians, and an advertising campaign that capitalized on the fact that Inca Kola is a Peruvian product. In 1997, however, Coca-Cola acquired 49 percent of the Inca Kola company. Although exported to various countries, Inca Kola has not enjoyed major success elsewhere.

Kola Inglesa: a cherry-flavored red soda introduced in 1912 by its English creator, Erin Stone.

Kola Escocesa: a purple soda, traditional in the city of Arequipa. The beverage has been produced since the 1950s using mineral water.

Less common are:

Refresco de camu camu: Refrescos are juices of various flavours mixed with water and sugar and often served with the set menu of the day at smaller restaurants. Besides camu camu, there are more common flavours such as orange. Pure juices, such as orange juice or grape juice, are seldom encountered in Peru due to their expense.

Té de uña de gato: a tea made from a plant from the Amazon, cat's claw (Uncaria tomentosa), which is consumed for its supposed healing or medicinal properties.

Alcoholic drinks

Pisco, a type of brandy, is the national drink of Peru. It originated during the colonial period as a cheaper substitute for the Spanish liquor known as orujo. Nevertheless, orujo is a product made from the spoils of wine production. Pisco uses fresh grapes like wine-making. This distilled beverage made from grapes is produced in various regions of the country. Pisco Sour is a cocktail made from pisco combined with lime juice, egg white and simple syrup. Chilcano is also made with Pisco.

Wines come from many different regions of the country, most notably from the Ica Region.

Beer, as in many countries, is popular at all levels of society. The first brewery was Pilsen Callao, which was established by a German immigrant in 1865. Other regional beers are Cristal, Arequipeña, Cusqueña and Pilsen Trujillo from Arequipa, Cuzco and Trujillo respectively; though Cuzqueña is popular nationwide and is exported worldwide. A common beer-drinking ritual among many Peruvian men involves a group sharing one glass. The party holding the bottle waits for the prior person to drink from the glass before receiving that glass, filling it and passing the bottle on to the next in line. While this custom is more common among men of lower classes of society, people of higher social status, particularly youth and occasionally women, take part in this custom for fun.

Chicha de jora is a corn-based alcoholic fermented beverage that originated in pre-Columbian coastal Peruvian indigenous cultures, and became more widespread during the height of the Incan Empire, as it was often consumed in mass during weeks of celebration. Different cultural regions would produce it in a mash that depended on different varieties of fermented maize and different aromatic herbs. While it is most popular today in the Andes region, it can still be found throughout markets across the country.

History

The presence of the various altitudinal floors of the Andes mountain range in Peru and its proximity to the geographical equator allows the existence of a series of microclimates and species, from areas of usual snowfall to tropical forests. With 84 of the 104 climatic zones on the globe, it is one of the 12 countries in the world with the greatest mega-diversity. It has suitable conditions for growing fruits and vegetables throughout the year. Likewise, the Humboldt Current of cold oceanic waters that run through the Pacific Ocean off the Peruvian coast allows the existence of a great variety of fish and shellfish (Peru is one of the main fishing countries in the world).

Peru is a diverse country and that can be reflected in its food. Both immigration and the Spanish bringing in slaves from Africa contributed to some of Peru's diversity. In 1527 the Spanish started to bring people from Africa. 30 to 40 percent of Lima, Peru's population was of African descent. Women did domestic work or vended food. African influence played a role in shaping the national food heritage of Peru. A woman named Doña Josefa Marmanillo created turron or Turrón de Doña Pepa. She was an Afro- Peruvian slave who lived in Lima, Peru. Her dessert is eaten during the Señor de los Milagros (Lord of Miracles) feast that is celebrated every October. The month is also known as the purple month because of the procession colors. Another dessert eaten during the celebration is mazamorra morada (purple pudding).

Afro-Peruvians were one group that influenced Peru's food history. Marmanillo was skilled at cooking but became paralyzed in her arms. She went to the procession for Señor de los Milagros which means Lord of Miracles. The painting of Christ there was known to lead to miracles and healing. Indigenous artists would sometimes be paid to paint pictures of Christ on churches. After her visit, Marmanillo was healed. To show her gratefulness, she created a dessert called Turrón de Doña Pepa. The dessert had become part of a tradition and is eaten every October in Peru during the Lord of Miracles celebration. The dessert is still eaten today for the celebration. It is one of the world's largest Catholic ceremonies.

According to Elias et al (2022), the emergence and appearance of Peruvian gastronomy in the international market was produced through a reconversion that combined the local with the foreign. This was based on innovation aimed at enhancing its cuisine by applying international haute cuisine techniques supported by identity, cultural diversity and taking advantage of Peru's biodiversity.