Shawnee

Shawnee Etymology

Shawnee has also been written as Shaawana and Shawanese. Individuals and singular Shawnee tribes may be referred to as šaawanwa, while the collective Shawnee people may be referred to as šaawanwaki or šaawanooki.

Algonquian languages include words similar to the archaic shawano (now: shaawanwa), meaning "south". However, the stem šawa- does not mean "south" in Shawnee, but rather "moderate, warm (of weather)": See Charles F. Voegelin, "šawa (plus -ni, -te) Moderate, Warm. Cp. šawani 'it is moderating...". In one Shawnee tale, "Sawage" (šaawaki) is the deity of the south wind. Jeremiah Curtin translates Sawage as 'it thaws', referring to the warm weather of the south. In an account and a song collected by C. F. Voegelin, šaawaki is attested as the spirit of the South, or the South Wind.

Language

The Shawnee language is known as saawanwaatoweewe. In 2002, the Shawnee language, a part of the Algonquian family, was in decline but was still spoken by approximately 200 people. These included more than 100 Absentee Shawnee and 12 Shawnee Tribe speakers. By 2017, Shawnee language advocates, including tribal member George Blanchard, estimated that there were fewer than 100 speakers. Most fluent Shawnee speakers are over the age of 50.

The language is written in the Latin script, but attempts to create a unified spelling system have been unsuccessful. The Shawnee language has a dictionary, and portions of the Bible have been translated into Shawnee.

History

Precontact history

Some scholars have proposed that the Shawnee descend from the precontact Fort Ancient culture of the Ohio region, although this interpretation is not universally accepted. Other scholars suggest that the Shawnee entered the region at a later period and subsequently occupied Fort Ancient sites.

Fort Ancient culture flourished from c. 1000 to c. 1650 CE among populations that predominantly inhabited lands along both sides of the Ohio River in areas corresponding to present-day southern Ohio, northern Kentucky, and western West Virginia. Like contemporaneous Mississippian culture societies, Fort Ancient peoples constructed earthwork mounds as integral components of their religious, social, and political systems. Fort Ancient culture was once interpreted as a regional manifestation of Mississippian cultural influence; however, scholars now generally conclude that Fort Ancient culture (1000–1650 CE) developed primarily from the earlier Hopewell culture (100 BCE–500 CE). The Hopewell peoples likewise constructed mounds as central elements of their social, political, and religious organization. Among their most prominent monuments are large earthwork effigy mounds, including Serpent Mound in present-day Ohio.

The ultimate fate of the Fort Ancient peoples remains uncertain. It is widely thought that their society, like that of Mississippian cultures farther south, was profoundly disrupted by successive waves of epidemic disease introduced through early contact with Spanish explorers during the 16th century. Archaeological evidence from the period after 1525 at the Madisonville site, the type site, indicates that village house sizes became smaller and less numerous. Additional findings suggest a departure from a previously "horticulture-centered, sedentary way of life".

A gap exists in the archaeological record between the most recent Fort Ancient sites and the earliest sites associated with the historic Shawnee. The latter were documented by European (French and English) archaeologists as occupying the region at the time of sustained contact. Scholars generally accept that similarities in material culture, artistic traditions, mythology, and Shawnee oral histories linking them to Fort Ancient peoples support the possibility of a cultural and historical connection between Fort Ancient society and the historical Shawnee. At the same time, evidence and oral traditions also associate Siouan-speaking nations with the Ohio Valley, reflecting the region's complex and multiethnic history.

17th century

Europeans reported encountering the Shawnee across a wide geographic area. One of the earliest possible references to the Shawnee appears on a 1614 Dutch map depicting a group identified as Sawwanew located just east of the Delaware River. Later 17th-century Dutch sources also place them in this general region. Accounts by French explorers from the same century more commonly situated the Shawnee along the Ohio River, where they were encountered during French expeditions originating from eastern Canada and the Illinois Country.

Based on historical accounts and later archaeological evidence, John E. Kleber describes Shawnee towns as follows:"A Shawnee town might have from forty to one hundred bark-covered houses similar in construction to Iroquois longhouses. Each village usually had a meeting house or council house, perhaps sixty to ninety feet long, where public deliberations took place."

According to English colonial legend, some Shawnee were believed to descend from a party sent by Chief Opechancanough, ruler of the Powhatan Confederacy from 1618 to 1644, to settle in the Shenandoah Valley. This party was reportedly led by his son, Sheewa-a-nee. Edward Bland, an explorer who accompanied Abraham Wood's expedition in 1650, wrote that during Opechancanough's lifetime there had been a conflict between a Chawan chief and a weroance of the Powhatan, who was also a relative of Opechancanough's family. Bland stated that the latter had murdered the former. The Shawnee were later "driven from Kentucky in the 1670s by the Iroquois of Pennsylvania and New York, who claimed the Ohio valley as hunting ground to supply its fur trade. In 1671, the colonists Batts and Fallam reported that the Shawnee were contesting control of the Shenandoah Valley with the Haudenosaunee Confederacy (Iroquois) and were losing that contest.

Sometime prior to 1670, a group of Shawnee migrated to the Savannah River region. These Shawnee made contact with English colonists based in Charles Town, South Carolina, in 1674, and the two groups formed a long-lasting alliance. The Savannah River Shawnee became known to the Carolina English as the "Savannah Indians." At roughly the same time, other Shawnee groups migrated to Florida, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and additional regions south and east of the Ohio country. Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville, founder of New Orleans and the French colony of La Louisiane, wrote in his journal in 1699 that the Shawnee (whom he spelled Chaouenons) were "the single nation to fear, being spread out over Carolina and Virginia in the direction of the Mississippi."

18th century

Some Shawnee occupied areas of central Pennsylvania. Having long been without a recognized chief, they requested in 1714 that Carondawana, an Oneida war chief, represent them before the Pennsylvania provincial council. Around 1727, Carondawana and his wife, a prominent interpreter known as Madame Montour, settled at Otstonwakin, located on the west bank at the confluence of Loyalsock Creek and the West Branch Susquehanna River.

By 1730, European American settlers had begun to arrive in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, where the Shawnee predominated in the northern portion of the valley. They were claimed as tributaries by the Haudenosaunee, or Six Nations of the Iroquois, to the north. The Iroquois assisted some of the Tuscarora people from North Carolina—who were also Iroquoian speakers and distant relations—in resettling near what is now Martinsburg, West Virginia. Most of the Tuscarora migrated to New York and settled near the Oneida, becoming the sixth nation of the Iroquois Confederacy; they declared their migration complete in 1722. During this same period, Seneca and Lenape war parties from the north frequently fought pitched battles with pursuing bands of Catawba from Virginia, who overtook them in Shawnee-inhabited regions of the valley.

By the late 1730s, increasing pressure from colonial expansion produced repeated conflicts. Shawnee communities were also affected by the expanding fur trade. While access to arms and European goods increased, the trade also introduced rum and brandy, contributing to serious social problems related to alcohol abuse. Several Shawnee communities in the Province of Pennsylvania, led by Peter Chartier, a Métis trader, opposed the sale of alcohol within their settlements. This opposition brought them into conflict with colonial governor Patrick Gordon, who faced pressure from traders to permit the sale of rum and brandy. Lacking effective protection, approximately 400 Shawnee migrated in 1745 from Pennsylvania to Ohio, Kentucky, Alabama, and Illinois in an effort to escape the traders' influence.

Prior to 1754, the Shawnee maintained a headquarters at Shawnee Springs in present-day Cross Junction, Virginia. The father of the later chief Cornstalk held his council there. Several additional Shawnee villages were located throughout the northern Shenandoah Valley, including at Moorefield, West Virginia, along the North River, and on the Potomac at Cumberland, Maryland. In 1753, Shawnee living along the Scioto River in the Ohio Country sent messengers to those remaining in the Shenandoah Valley, urging them to cross the Alleghenies and join their western communities; they did so the following year. The settlement known as Shannoah (Lower Shawneetown) on the Ohio River grew to approximately 1,200 inhabitants by 1750.

American Revolution

When the United States declared independence from the British Crown in 1776, the Shawnee were divided in their response. They did not support the American rebel cause. Cornstalk led a minority faction that favored neutrality. Shawnee communities north of the Ohio River were particularly dissatisfied with American settlement in Kentucky. Historian Colin Calloway reports that most Shawnee ultimately allied with the British against the Americans, hoping to expel settlers from west of the Appalachian Mountains.

War leaders such as Blackfish and Blue Jacket joined forces with Dragging Canoe and a band of Cherokee along the lower Tennessee River and Chickamauga Creek in resistance to colonial expansion in that region. Some colonists referred to this Cherokee group as the Chickamauga, after the river along which they lived during what later became known as the Cherokee–American wars, fought during and after the American Revolution. However, they were not a separate tribe, as some contemporary and later accounts suggested.

Following the American Revolution and during the Northwest Indian War, the Shawnee collaborated with the Miami to form a powerful military alliance in the Ohio Valley. Together, they led a broader confederation of Native American warriors seeking to expel U.S. settlers from the region. After their defeat by U.S. forces at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794, most Shawnee bands signed the Treaty of Greenville the following year. Under the terms of the treaty, they were compelled to cede large portions of their homeland to the United States. Other Shawnee groups rejected the agreement and migrated independently to Missouri west of the Mississippi River, where they established settlements along Apple Creek. The French referred to this community as Le Grand Village Sauvage.

Tecumseh's War and the War of 1812

In the early 19th century, the Shawnee leader Tecumseh gained prominence for organizing the intertribal alliance later known as Tecumseh's confederacy in opposition to American expansion into Native American lands. The resulting conflict became known as Tecumseh's War. The two principal adversaries in the conflict—Tecumseh and General William Henry Harrison—had both previously participated as junior figures in the 1794 Battle of Fallen Timbers. Tecumseh did not sign the 1795 Treaty of Greenville. Nevertheless, many Native American leaders in the region accepted the treaty's terms, and for roughly the next decade organized intertribal resistance to American hegemony diminished.

In September 1809, Harrison, then governor of the Indiana Territory, invited representatives of the Potawatomi, Lenape, Eel River people, and Miami to a council at Fort Wayne. During the negotiations, Harrison offered substantial subsidies in exchange for land cessions to the United States. After two weeks of discussion, Potawatomi leaders persuaded the Miami to accept the agreement as an act of reciprocity, noting that the Potawatomi had previously accepted treaties less favorable to themselves at the Miami's request. The assembled tribes ultimately signed the Treaty of Fort Wayne on September 30, 1809, ceding more than 3,000,000 acres (12,000 km2) to the United States, primarily along the Wabash River north of Vincennes, Indiana.

Tecumseh strongly objected to the Treaty of Fort Wayne, arguing that Native American land was held collectively by all tribes, a principle previously articulated by the Shawnee leader Blue Jacket and the Mohawk leader Joseph Brant. In response, Tecumseh expanded upon the religious and political teachings of his brother Tenskwatawa, a spiritual leader known as The Prophet, who called upon Native peoples to return to their ancestral traditions. Tecumseh increasingly linked these teachings to the formation of a broad intertribal alliance. He traveled extensively, urging warriors to reject accommodationist leaders and to join the resistance centered at Prophetstown. In August 1810, Tecumseh led approximately 400 armed warriors to confront Harrison at Vincennes. There, Tecumseh demanded that Harrison invalidate the Treaty of Fort Wayne, threatening violence against the chiefs who had signed it. Harrison refused, asserting that the Miami were the rightful owners of the land and therefore entitled to sell it if they chose. Tecumseh departed peacefully but warned Harrison that he would seek an alliance with the British should the treaty remain in force.

Aftermath

The Shawnee in Missouri migrated south from the United States into Mexico, settling in the eastern part of Spanish Texas. They became known as the "Absentee Shawnee". They were joined during this migration by some Delaware (Lenape). Although they maintained a close alliance with the Cherokee led by The Bowl, their chief, John Linney, remained neutral during the 1839 Cherokee War.

After Texas achieved independence from Mexico under American leadership, the new republic decided to force the removal of the Shawnee from its territory. In recognition of their earlier neutrality, Texan President Mirabeau Lamar compensated the Shawnee for their improvements and crops. Despite this compensation, they were compelled to relocate to the Arkansas Territory. The Shawnee later settled near present-day Shawnee, Oklahoma. They were joined by Shawnee expelled from Kansas (see below), who shared similar traditionalist views and beliefs.

In 1817, the Ohio Shawnee signed the Treaty of Fort Meigs, ceding their remaining lands in exchange for three reservations in Wapaughkonetta, Hog Creek (near Lima), and Lewistown, Ohio. They shared these reservations with some Seneca people who had migrated westward from New York.

Through a series of treaties, including the Treaty of Lewistown of 1825, the Shawnee and Seneca agreed to exchange their lands in western Ohio for territory west of the Mississippi River in what later became Indian Territory. In July 1831, the Lewistown group of Seneca–Shawnee departed for Indian Territory, in present-day Kansas and Oklahoma.

The main body of Shawnee in Ohio followed Black Hoof, who resisted repeated efforts to force his people to relinquish their homeland. After Black Hoof's death, the remaining 400 Ohio Shawnee at Wapaughkonetta and Hog Creek surrendered their lands and relocated to the Shawnee Reserve in Kansas. This movement occurred largely under terms negotiated by Joseph Parks (1793–1859), who had been raised in the household of Lewis Cass and later served as a leading interpreter for the Shawnee.

After Missouri joined the Union in 1821, the Treaty of St. Louis led in 1825 to the forced relocation of approximately 1,400 Missouri Shawnee from Cape Girardeau along the west bank of the Mississippi River to southeastern Kansas, near the Neosho River.

Federal recognition

In the late 20th century, the "Loyal" or "Cherokee" Shawnee initiated a movement to obtain federal recognition as a tribe independent of the Cherokee Nation. This recognition was granted through an act of the United States Congress, and the tribe is now officially known as the "Shawnee Tribe". Today, the majority of members of the three federally recognized Shawnee tribes, the "Shawnee Tribe", the Eastern Shawnee Tribe of Oklahoma, and the Absentee-Shawnee Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma, reside in Oklahoma.

State-recognized tribe

The state of Alabama recognizes an organization, the Piqua Shawnee Tribe, as a state-recognized tribe under the Davis–Strong Act. Ohio does not recognize any Shawnee tribes or any other state-recognized tribes. Kentucky likewise has no mechanism for state recognition of tribes.

Unrecognized groups who claim Shawnee descent

Dozens of unrecognized organizations self-identify as having Shawnee ancestry. These organizations are not federally recognized tribes nor state-recognized tribes.

The Cultural Preservation Department of the Absentee Shawnee Tribal Historic Preservation Office has stated that, within ancestral settlement areas including but not limited to Ohio, Kentucky, West Virginia, Indiana, and Alabama, there are individuals who claim Shawnee ancestry. The department noted that while such claims are not inherently problematic, concern arises when individuals or groups use these claims to exploit Shawnee culture for personal gain, particularly among members of the public who may be unaware of the significant political and cultural distinctions separating federally recognized Shawnee tribes from those of alleged Shawnee ancestry.

Ben Barnes, chief of the Shawnee Tribe, has written that "groups claiming to be tribal sovereigns has reached a new level of concern for the Shawnee Tribe and other tribal nations." He further stated:

There are currently 36 unestablished Shawnee "tribes" operating as 501(c)(3) non-profits across the country. Their 501(c)(3) designations allow them to solicit donations and participate in grants meant for Tribal nations. They pose as spokespeople for our ancestors at historic sites, state historical societies, and university campuses causing significant harm to our identity, culture, and reputation. These groups are violating the sacred, ancient places of our ancestors. They perform their ideas of our ceremonies on top of our burial mounds and have stolen our language, customs, and ceremonies.

The United Remnant Band of the Shawnee Nation of Bellefontaine, Ohio, has been the subject of state-level consideration. In 1979 and 1980, the Ohio state legislature held hearings regarding state recognition of the United Remnant Band. The band submitted historical and genealogical documentation to the state in support of its claim of descent from the historical Shawnee. The Ohio General Assembly conducted hearings and heard testimony from multiple parties. In 1980, the 113th Ohio General Assembly adopted a "Joint Resolution to recognize the Shawnee Nation United Remnant Band," passed by the Ohio Senate during the Regular Session, Am. Sub. H.J.R. No. 8, 1979–1980. This measure was a congratulatory resolution and carried no legal force. An Ohio attorney general's office spokesperson later explained that "the resolution has no force of law in the state of Ohio… It was basically a ceremonial resolution."

Social and kinship groups

Before contact with Europeans, the Shawnee had a patrilineal social system, in which descent and inheritance were traced through the paternal line. This differed from the kinship systems of many other Native American tribes, which were matrilineal. In matrilineal systems, children were considered members of their mother's family and clan, and inheritance and property passed through the female line.

According to the mid-19th-century historian Henry Harvey, the Shawnee were ruled by kings, whom he referred to as sachema [or sachems], who succeeded to office through a matrilineal line. Under this system, a king's own children would not inherit his position. Instead, succession passed to the sons of his brother through the mother, or to the sons of his sister, and subsequently to the sons of her daughter. Women did not inherit the position directly. Harvey suggested that this form of succession was favored because a woman's sons were always considered unquestionably legitimate.

The five divisions, or septs, of the tribe were commonly known as:

Chillicothe (Principal Place), Chalahgawtha, Chalaka, Chalakatha; the principal division of "Tschillicothi," appointed by the first leading Illini or man, Kwikullay

Hathawekela, Thawikila

Kispoko, Kispokotha, Kishpoko, Kishpokotha; from ishpoko, related to the Ispogi, meaning swamps or marshy lands in Muscogee usage, particularly associated with Tukabatchi

Mekoche, Mequachake, Machachee, Maguck, Mackachack, etc.; Mackochee

Pekowi, Pekuwe, Piqua, Pekowitha; Pickywanni or Pickquay

War chiefs were also hereditary and descended through the maternal line within the Kispoko division.

A 1935 study noted that the Shawnee consisted of five septs and were also organized into six clans or name groups based on kinship. Each clan embodied specific spiritual values and held a recognized role within the broader confederacy. Each name group was present within all five divisions, and every Shawnee belonged to both a division and a clan or name group.

Notable historic Shawnee

Shawnee individuals from the 20th and 21st centuries are listed under their respective federally recognized tribes.

Big Hominy (Meshemethequater, 1690–1758), respected warrior noted for participating in peace conferences that helped prevent warfare between English settlers and the Shawnee

Black Bob (Wawahchepaehai or Wawahchepaekar), 19th-century leader and war chief active in Ohio

Black Hoof (Catahecassa, 1740–1831), respected Shawnee chief who believed adaptation to European-American culture was necessary for his people's survival

Black Snake (Peteusha) and Big Snake (Shemanetoo), leaders active in Lord Dunmore's War, the American Revolutionary War, and the Northwest Indian War

Blackfish (Chiungalla, 1729–1779), Shawnee chief of the Chillicothe division

Blue Jacket (Waweyapiersenwaw, "Blue Jacket", 1743–1810), prominent leader in the Northwest Indian War and an early supporter of Tecumseh

Peter Chartier (Wacanackshina, "White One Who Reclines", 1690–1759), French-Canadian/Shawnee leader who opposed the sale of alcohol in Shawnee communities and fought on the French side during the French and Indian War

Chiksika (Chiuxca, "Black Stump", 1760–1792), Kispoko war chief and elder brother of Tecumseh

Cornstalk (Hokolesqua, 1720–1777), Shawnee leader during Lord Dunmore's War

George Drouillard (1773–1810), French-Canadian/Shawnee who served as a scout on the Lewis and Clark Expedition