The Sikh Empire was a regional power based in the Punjab region of South Asia. It existed from 1799, when maharaja Ranjit Singh captured Lahore, to 1849, when it was defeated and annexed by the British East India Company following the Second Anglo-Sikh War. At its peak in the mid-19th century, the empire extended from Gilgit and Tibet in the north to the deserts of Sindh in the south and from the Khyber Pass in the west to the Sutlej in the east, and was divided into 8 provinces. Religiously diverse, with an estimated population of 12 million in 1800 (making it the 12th most populous state at the time), it was the last major region of the Indian subcontinent to be conquered by the British Empire.
In 1799, Ranjit Singh of the Sukerchakia Misl captured Lahore from the Sikh triumvirate which had been ruling it since 1765, and was confirmed on the possession of Lahore by the Durrani ruler, Zaman Shah. He was formally crowned on 12 April 1801 by Sahib Singh Bedi, a descendant of Guru Nanak. Ranjit Singh rose to power in a very short period, from a leader of a single misl to finally becoming the Maharaja of Punjab. By 1813 all the remaining Sikh misls had been annexed by Ranjit Singh, and the following years saw progressive expulsion of the Afghans from Punjab; the Afghan influence east of Indus ended after the fall of Multan in 1818. In the subsequent decades Durrani Afghans lost Kashmir and Peshawar to the Sikhs as well. By 1840 Ladakh and Baltistan had been brought under Sikh suzerainty by Gulab Singh. Ranjit Singh modernised his army using the latest training as well as weapons and artillery.
After the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1839, the empire was weakened by the British East India Company stoking internal divisions and political mismanagement. Finally, in 1849, the state was dissolved after its defeat in the Second Anglo-Sikh War.
Contents
Terminology
The empire is also referred to as the Lahore State, such as in contemporary British maps. The term Lahore Darbar refers to the Sikh court at Lahore of the empire's ruling government. However, the term "Lahore Darbar" gained currency only around the time of Ranjit Singh's death, and was not found in British sources until then. The empire's own Persian chronicles refers to its ruling government as the Sarkar Khalsaji. According to Priya Atwal, the polity was known in Punjabi as Sarkar-i-Khalsa. The contemporary British and other Europeans referred to the state as the Kingdom of Lahore and its ruling family as the Lahore royal family. The term Sikh Empire came into popular usage in the 20th century, perhaps as an English-language equivalent to the "Sarkar-i-Khalsa" term. The period of Sikh rule was also referred to as Sikha shahi, a term that has survived to the present age with various meanings.
History
Background
Sikhism originated in the 16th-century Punjab with the teachings of Guru Nanak. Initially a pacifist faith, the followers of Sikhism (known as Sikhs) became increasingly militarised owing to their conflicts with the Mughal Empire and the killing of their gurus, Guru Arjan and Guru Tegh Bahadur, on the orders of Mughal emperors. With the decline of Mughal power after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the tenth and last Sikh guru Gobind Singh established a militia known as Khalsa Fauj. The first Sikh state led by Banda Singh Bahadur was short-lived, but by the mid-18th century a confederation of twelve Sikh states, known as misls, was firmly established in central and eastern Punjab. The Dal Khalsa armies of the twelve misls engaged in numerous conflicts with the Mughals as well as the invading Afghan armies, especially those led by Ahmad Shah Abdali. They also fought with the neighbouring hill rajas and among each other.
Ranjit Singh, the founder of Sikh Empire, was born in the ruling family of Sukerchakia misl in 1780.
Empire
Ranjit Singh succeeded his father Maha Singh at the age of thirteen in 1792. In 1797, Ranjit Singh besieged Rasulnagar, the capital of the Chattha Jats, with whom Sukerchakias had a bitter rivalry. The Chattha chief Jan Muhammad was killed in the siege and Rasulnagar, now renamed Ramnagar, was annexed.
In 1797–98, Zaman Shah Durrani invaded Punjab, but was forced to retreat, following which Ranjit Singh captured Lahore. The local dignitaries and people welcomed him in the city. Ranjit Singh formally moved the capital from Gujranwala, where it had been established in 1763 by his grandfather Charat Singh, to Lahore in 1799. In 1800, the Jammu region was annexed by Ranjit Singh.
The coronation of Ranjit Singh happened at Lahore in 1801, marking the formal beginning of the Sikh Empire. It was followed by a decade-long process of conquest of remaining Sikh misls, starting with Amritsar in 1802, which was largely complete by 1812. All the misl leaders, who were affiliated with the army, were the nobility with usually long and prestigious family backgrounds in Sikh history.
In 1807, forces of Ranjit Singh attacked Kasur and, after a month of fierce fighting, captured it. In the same year he also annexed the Sial-ruled Jhang. In 1813, his general Mohkam Chand fought against the Afghan forces of Shah Mahmud led by Fateh Khan Barakzai, and Attock Fort was captured by Ranjit Singh in that battle.The Cis-Sutlej states were a group of Sikh states lying between the Sutlej River and the Yamuna River. They had been under the suzerainty of the British East India Company since the second Anglo-Maratha War of 1803–1805. Ranjit Singh occupied one of the states, Faridkot, in 1807. However, the control was restored to Gulab Singh of Faridkot in 1809 after the signing of Amritsar treaty between the Lahore Darbar and the British East India Company, which demarcated eastern borders of Sikh Empire at Sutlej. Friendly relations were established with the British following the signing of the treaty.
Multan was conquered in 1818, which ended Afghan influence in Punjab. In 1819, after the battle of Shopian, Ranjit Singh successfully defeated the Afghans and annexed the Kashmir Valley, expanding his rule towards the north and the Jhelum Valley, beyond the foothills of the Himalayas. The Namgyal dynasty of Ladakh paid regular annual tribute to the Sikh Empire, starting from 1819. The tribute was paid through the local Sikh governors of Kashmir.
Administration and state
Government
The empire's ruling court based out of Lahore is termed the Lahore Darbar or Khalsa Darbar. Faqir Saifuddin of the Fakir Khana Museum prefers to use the term Punjab Darbar rather than "Khalsa Darbar", owing to the large role Muslims played in Ranjit Singh's court. The ruling court was diverse and under the ultimate command of the ruling maharaja, who was the "drum of the Khalsa". In-theory, the Sikh court was based on the Khalsa ideals propounded by Guru Gobind Singh yet the court was secular in-practice. As an example of this secularism, members of the court came from various religious background, including Sikhs, Hindus, Muslims, and Christians. Furthermore, the members also came from various ethnic, regional, and caste backgrounds, such as Dogras, Rajputs, Brahmins, Jats, and Europeans. Whilst Ranjit Singh himself preferred to dress modestly, the Sikh court was filled with elaborately garbed and decorated members. Only three individuals were permitted to be seated on chairs within the durbar, them namely being heir-apparent Kharak Singh, Kanwar Sher Singh, and Raja Hira Singh. Three sides of the hall of the durbar were covered with golden-pillars, with shawl carpets that were embroidered with gold and silver, and inset with precious stones, decorating the floor. The maharaja was seated on a golden throne, with Ranjit Singh preferring to sit cross-legged on it. The member of the court allowed to be seated behind the maharaja was Raja Dhian Singh. The rest of the members of the court were seated as per their rank and status. The colours of the Sikh court were yellow and green. Thus, most of its members donned yellow-coloured dressings made from Kashmiri silk or woolens. However, there existed no strict categorisation scheme of the rankings of the constituent members of the Lahore Darbar, thus the rankings of its members was determined by the level of trust the maharaja held in them. The court also granted awards upon its members, with most of these essentially being bestowed titles in the form of honorifics, however some members were granted jagirs (estate grant). Laziness was heavily looked-down upon with the court, with the ruling maharaja often sending out the court's members on military or diplomatic missions.
The business of the ruling government was carried out in Lahore, specifically the Musamman Burj located within the Lahore Fort. A public court was held from morning until noon in the Diwan-i-Aam ("hall of audience"), with the court being attended by important members of the court, including princes, ministers, nobles, and civil and military officers. Some matters discussed in the court include high-level civil and military appointments, reports from the provincial governors (provincial satraps) and kardars (tax collectors). When matters of the court were read-out, royal decrees made orally were transferred into writing for final approval. Tributes and nazaranas were also exchanged or bestowed within the court. Supplicants to the court were dismissed with khill'ats (robes) or monetary gifts. When the maharaja was travelling, the court ceased to be static and was held at whatever location the maharaja's retinue decided to hold-up at, often under a tree or whilst moving on horseback. The maharaja would dictate orders to provincial governors whilst inspecting their troops or even in the midst of battle.
Foreign affairs
Foreign visitors to the Sikh court were treated with respect and hospitality, with many contemporary accounts of foreign visitors to the court noting the good-treatment afforded to them by the state. When a foreign visitor arrived, they would be greeted by a protocol officer, who would arrange for their temporary residence, which was based upon the status of the visitor. The state government paid for the expenses regarding the visitor's entertainment. There exists accounts of visitors being gifted by the state, with presents such as fruits, sweets, wines, and also money. Full displays of the empire's regalia and military forces were displayed during important ceremonial functions, such as the marriages of important nobles or when receiving high-level foreign diplomatic dignitaries.
In order to keep tabs and updated on the happenings of surrounding regions, including remote parts of its territory and foreign countries, the Sikh court received reports from the waqa'nawis (news-writers) located in the empire's provinces (subas). The reports were dispatched to the Lahore Darbar at regular intervals. Furthermore, the vakils (agents) of foreign countries were associated with the Sikh court on a reciprocal basis. The Sikh court had news-writers located in Afghanistan and also had its own vakil emissaries in the Cis-Sutlej States and also in territory under the British East India Company's rule. Other vakil emissaries of the Sikh court were sent to Rajputana, the Marathas, and Nepal on complimentary missions.
Western/European officers from various backgrounds, including Britishers, Frenchmen, Germans, Italians, Spaniards, Americans, and Russians, also rose to high levels within the Sikh court in many instances. However, the Sikh court was wary of the Westerners within the court, and therefore kept them under strict regulation. These foreign Western members of the court were persuaded by the state to integrate themselves by marrying a local woman, settling down within the empire, and adopt the cultural customs of the locals, such as growing out a beard or wearing a turban. The Western members of the court were also banned from publicly consuming beef or smoking.
The Sikh Empire did enact a simple border policy where it did not allow uninvited foreigners into the state. The purpose of this border policy was to dissuade potential foreign spies from entering the country. An example of the policy in-action is the case of Captain Arnold Mathews, who snuck into the Sikh Empire in circa 1808 to spy under the guise of being a tourist headed towards Kashmir but was intercepted and brought to Lahore.
Holidays
The Sikh court observed the festivals of Vaisakhi, Dussehra, Basant, Holi, and Diwali. Vaisakhi was considered an especially auspicious celebration within the Sikh court, with it giving and distributing gifts of money, gold, silver, cows, horses, elephants, gold-bangles, and food to Brahmins and the poor. During Basant celebrations, the military troops of the empire were paraded donning yellow uniforms, with members of the Sikh court and nobles also wearing yellow clothing on the day. During Basant, the officials bore gifts for the sovereign ruler, with the ruler in-turn bestowing robe-of-honours to the officials based on their rank and status. During celebrations of Dussehra, the Sikh court assembled itself at Amritsar and the jagirdari troops of the empire's military were paraded and inspected by the maharaja.
Geography
The Sikh Empire spanned a total of over 200,000 sq mi (520,000 km2) at its zenith. Another more conservative estimate puts its total surface area during its zenith at 100,436 sq mi (260,124 km sq). Jean-Marie Lafont states that the empire comprised a territory of 390,000 square kilometres. It comprised much of Punjab, Pakistan until Mithankot in the south and excluding Bahawalpur State, Kashmir Valley, Baltistan, Gilgit, Ladakh, Punjab, India excluding most of the territory south of Sutlej, the territories northwest of Sutlej in Himachal Pradesh, India, Jammu Division, and Peshawar in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Jamrud formed the westernmost limit of the Sikh Empire.
The empire was divided into various provinces (known as Subas), with them namely being as follows as per Hari Ram Gupta:
Hans Herrli instead claims there were five provinces of the Sikh Empire, namely Lahore, Multan, Peshawar, Derajat, and Jammu and Hill States.
Religious policy
The Sikh Empire allowed men from religions other than their own to rise to commanding positions of authority.
The Fakir brothers were trusted personal advisors and assistants as well as close friends to Ranjit Singh, particularly Fakir Azizuddin, who would serve in the positions of foreign minister of the empire and translator for the maharaja, and played important roles in such important events as the negotiations with the British, during which he convinced Ranjit Singh to maintain diplomatic ties with the British and not to go to war with them in 1808, as British troops were moved along the Sutlej in pursuance of the British policy of confining Ranjit Singh to the north of the river, and setting the Sutlej as the dividing boundary between the Sikh and British empires; negotiating with Dost Muhammad Khan during his unsuccessful attempt to retake Peshawar, and ensuring the succession of the throne during the Maharaja's last days in addition to caretaking after a stroke, as well as occasional military assignments throughout his career. The Fakir brothers were introduced to the Maharaja when their father, Ghulam Muhiuddin, a physician, was summoned by him to treat an eye ailment soon after his capture of Lahore.
The other Fakir brothers were Imamuddin, one of his principal administrative officers, and Nuruddin, who served as home minister and personal physician, were also granted jagirs by the Maharaja.
Every year, while at Amritsar, Ranjit Singh visited shrines of holy people of other faiths, including several Muslim saints, which did not offend even the most religious Sikhs of his administration. As relayed by Fakir Nuruddin, orders were issued to treat people of all faith groups, occupations, and social levels equally and in accordance with the doctrines of their faith, per the Shastras and the Quran, as well as local authorities like judges and panches (local elder councils), as well as banning forcible possession of others' land or of inhabited houses to be demolished. There were special courts for Muslims which ruled in accordance to Muslim law in personal matters, and common courts preceded over by judicial officers which administered justice under the customary law of the districts and socio-ethnic groups, and were open to all who wanted to be governed by customary religious law, whether Hindu, Sikh, or Muslim.
One of Ranjit Singh's first acts after the 1799 capture of Lahore was to revive the offices of the hereditary Qazis and Muftis which had been prevalent in Mughal times. Qazi Nizamuddin was appointed to decide marital issues among Muslims, while Muftis Mohammad Shahpuri and Sadulla Chishti were entrusted with powers to draw up title-deeds relating to transfers of immovable property. The old mohalladari system was reintroduced with each mahallah, or neighbourhood subdivision, placed under the charge of one of its members. The office of Kotwal, or prefect of police, was conferred upon a Muslim, Imam Bakhsh.
Demography
The population of the Sikh empire during the time of Ranjit Singh's rule was estimated to be around 12 million people. There were 8.4 million Muslims, 2.88 million Hindus and 722,000 Sikhs.
The religious demography of the empire is estimated to have been just over 10% to 12% Sikh, 80% Muslim, and just under 10% Hindu. Surjit Hans gave different numbers by retrospectively projecting the 1881 census, putting Muslims at 51%, Hindus at 40% and Sikhs at around 8%, the remaining 1% being Europeans. The population was 3.5 million in 1831, according to Amarinder Singh's The Last Sunset: The Rise and Fall of the Lahore Durbar. Hans Herrli in The Coins of the Sikhs estimated the total population of the empire to be around 5.35 million during 1838. Meanwhile, Jean-Marie Lafont estimates that the population of the empire consisted of 15 million people.
An estimated 90% of the Sikh population at the time, and more than half of the total population, was concentrated in the upper Bari, Jalandhar, and upper Rachna Doabs, and in the areas of their greatest concentration formed about one third of the population in the 1830s; half of the Sikh population of this core region was in the area covered by the later districts of Lahore and Amritsar.
In 1839, a major pogrom, called the Allahdad, targeted the local Jews of Mashhad in Qajar Persia. A group of Persian Jewish refugees from Mashhad, escaping persecution back home in Qajar Persia, settled in the Sikh Empire around the year 1839. Most of the Jewish families settled in Rawalpindi (specifically in the Babu Mohallah neighbourhood) and Peshawar. Most of these Jews would leave for the Dominion of India during the partition of 1947.
Economy
Revenue
Land revenue was the main source of income, accounting for about 70% of the state's income. Besides this, the other sources of income were customs, excises and monopolies.
Timeline
1699: Formation of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh.
1710–1716: Banda Singh defeats the Mughals and declares Khalsa rule.
1716–1738: Mughals take back territorial control for two decades but Sikhs engage in guerrilla warfare
1733–1735: The Khalsa accepts, only to reject, the confederal status given by the Mughals.
1738–1757: Nader Shah's invasion of India; Afghan invasion by Ahmad Shah Durrani
1761–1767: Recapture of Punjab region by Afghan in Third Battle of Panipat
1763–1774: Charat Singh Sukerchakia, Misldar of Sukerchakia misl, establishes himself in Gujranwala.
1764–1783: Baba Baghel Singh, Misldar of Singh Krora Misl, imposes taxes on the Mughals.
1783: Sikh capture of Delhi and the Red Fort from the Mughals
1773: Ahmad Shah Durrani dies and his son Timur Shah launches several invasions into Punjab.
1774–1790: Maha Singh becomes Misldar of the Sukerchakia misl.
1790–1801: Ranjit Singh becomes Misldar of the Sukerchakia misl.
1799, formation of the Sikh Khalsa Army
12 April 1801 (coronation) – 27 June 1839: reign of Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
List of rulers
Viziers/Wazirs (prime-ministers or chamberlains)
Khushal Singh Jamadar (1799–1818)
Dhian Singh Dogra (1818–1843)
Hira Singh Dogra (1843–1845)
Jawahar Singh (wazir) (14 May 1845 – 21 September 1845)
Lal Singh (1845–1846)
Gulab Singh (31 January – 9 March 1846)
Nizams/Diwans (provincial governors)
The nominal and acting governors of Kashmir during Sikh-rule and their tenures are as follows:
Diwan Moti Ram (1st term), end of 1819 – 1820
Hari Singh Nalwa, 1820–1821
Diwan Moti Ram (2nd term), December 1821 – spring of 1825
Gurmak Singh, 1825 (acting governor)
Diwan Chuni Lal, 1825 – end of 1826
Diwan Kirpa Ram, early 1827 – 1830
Maha Singh, 1830 (governor for one month after Kirpa Ram)
Bhima Singh Ardali, summer 1830 – 1831
Kanwar Sher Singh, 1831–1834
Diwan Vesaka Singh, 1831–1832 (acting governor on behalf of Sher Singh)
Shaikh Gholam Muhyi Addin & Jamadar Kushal Singh, 1832–1834 (acting governors for Sher Singh)
Mihan Singh Kumedan, July 1834 – 17 April 1841
Shaikh Gholam Muhyi Addin, April 1841 – 1845
Shaikh Imam-ud-Din, 1845 – November 1847
Several temporary Sikh governors of Multan, 1818–1820
Diwan Sawan Mal Chopra, 1820–1844
Diwan Mulraj Chopra, 1844–1849