Tamil

Etymology

Tamil is derived from the name of the language. The people are referred to as Tamiḻar in Tamil language, which is etymologically linked to the name of the language. The origin and precise etymology of the word Tamil is unclear with multiple theories attested to it. Kamil Zvelebil suggests that the term tamiz might have been derived from tam meaning "self" and "-iz" having the connotation of "unfolding sound". Alternatively, he suggests a derivation of tamiz < tam-iz < *tav-iz < *tak-iz, meaning "the proper process (of speaking)". Franklin Southworth suggests that the name comes from tam-miz > tam-iz meaning "self-speak", or "our own speech".

It is unknown whether the term Tamila and its equivalents in Prakrit such as Damela, Damila, or Tamira was first used as a self designation or by outsiders. The Hathigumpha inscription from Udayagiri in Eastern India dated to the second century BCE, describes a T[r]amira samghata (Confederacy of Tamil rulers), which was in existence for the previous 113 years. Epigraphical evidence from the second century BCE mentioning Damela or Dameda from ancient Sri Lanka have been found. In the Buddhist Jataka texts, there is a mention of a Damila-rattha (Tamil dynasty). Greek historian Strabo (first century BCE) mentions that the Roman Emperor Augustus received an ambassador from Pandyan of Dramira. An inscription from Amaravati dated to third century CE refers to a Dhamila-vaniya (Tamil trader).

History

In India

Archaeological evidence suggests the region was first inhabited by hominids over 400 millennia ago. Artifacts recovered in Adichanallur by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) indicate megalithic urn burials, dating from back to 1500 BCE. which are also described in early Tamil literature. Excavations at Keezhadi have revealed a large urban settlement, with the earliest artifact dated to 580 BCE, during the time of urbanization in the Indo-Gangetic plain. Epigraphical inscriptions found at Adichanallur and potsherds uncovered from Keezhadi use Tamil Brahmi, a rudimentary script dated to 6th century BCE.

The Sangam period lasted from 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE with the main source of history during the period coming from the various Sangam literature. Ancient Tamilakam was ruled by a triumvirate of monarchical states, Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. These kings are referred to as Vāṉpukaḻ Mūvar (Three glorified by heaven) in the Sangam literature. The Cheras controlled the western part of Tamilkam, the Pandyas controlled the south, and the Cholas had their base in the Kaveri delta. They are mentioned in the inscriptions from the Mauryan Empire dated to third century BCE. Kalinga inscriptions from the second century BCE refers to a confederacy of the Tamil kingdoms. The three kings called Vendhar ruled over several hill tribes headed by the Velir chiefs and settlements headed by clan chiefs called Kizhar. The rulers of smaller territories were referred to as Kurunilamannar, with Purananuru mentioning the names of many such chieftains.

The Sangam period rulers patronized multiple religions including vedic religion, Buddhism and Jainism and sponsored some of the earliest Tamil literature with the oldest surviving work being Tolkāppiyam, a book of Tamil grammar. Purananuru describes the public life and various unique cultural practices that existed during the period. The text talks about the Vedic Sacrifices performed by the kings as described in the Vedas and the rituals performed for the dead.

Agriculture was an important occupation during the period, and there is evidence that networks of irrigation channels were built as early as the 3rd century BCE. The Sangam literature describe fertile lands and people organised into various occupational groups. The governance of the land was through hereditary monarchies, although the sphere of the state's activities and the extent of the ruler's powers were limited through the adherence to an established order.

In Sri Lanka

There are various theories from scholars over the presence of Tamil people in Sri Lanka. Historian K. Indrapala states that Tamil replaced a previous language of an indigenous mesolithic population, who later became the Eelam Tamils and the cultural diffusion happened well before the arrival of Sinhalese people in Sri Lanka. Eelam Tamils consider themselves lineal descendants of the aboriginal Naga and Yaksha people of Sri Lanka. A cobra totem known as Nakam in the Tamil language is still part of the Tamil tradition in Sri Lanka. Remains of settlements and megalithic burial sites of people culturally similar to those of present-day Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu in modern India have been excavated at Pomparippu on the west coast and in Kathiraveli on the east coast of the island. These epigraphical evidence have been dated to a period between fifth century BCE and second century CE. Cultural similarities in burial practices in South India and Sri Lanka were dated by archeologists to the beginning of the Iron Age in the region around twelfth century BCE. There were specific migration routes that extended from South India to the island. These people moved further to the South of the island, and intermingled with the existent people.

Black and red ware potsherds found in Sri Lanka from the early reign of Anuradhapura kingdom, indicate a similar cultural connection with the people of South India. The Tamil Brahmi inscriptions on them indicate Tamil clan names such as Parumakal, Ay, Vel, Utiyan, Ticaiyan, Cuda and Naka, which points to the presence of Tamils in the region. Excavations in Poonakari in the north of the island have yielded several inscriptions including the mention of vela, a name related to velirs of the ancient Tamil country. Epigraphical evidence of people identified as Damelas (the Prakrit word for Tamil people) from the second century CE have been found in Anuradhapura, the capital city of the northern Rajarata region.

Historical records mention that the three Tamil kingdoms were involved in the island's affairs from second century BCE. Chola king Ellalan captured the Anuradhapura Kingdom from 205 BCE to 161 BCE. Tamil soldiers from Tamilakam came to Anuradhapura in large numbers in the seventh century CE with the local chiefs and kings relying on them. In the eighth century CE, various Tamil villages collectively known as Demel-kaballa (Tamil allotment), Demelat-valademin (Tamil villages), and Demel-gam-bim (Tamil villages and lands) were established. In the ninth and tenth centuries CE, Pandya and Chola incursions started in the island which culminated with the Chola annexation of the island.

Geographic distribution

India

As per the 2011 Census, there were 69 million Tamil speakers, constituting about 5.7% of the Indian population. Tamils formed the majority in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu (63.8 million) and the union territory of Puducherry (1.1 million). There were also significant Tamil population in other states of India such as Karnataka (2.1 million), Andhra Pradesh and Telangana (0.7 million), Maharashtra (0.5 million), and Kerala (0.5 million).

Sri Lanka

Tamils in Sri Lanka are classified into two ethnic groups by the Sri Lankan government: Sri Lankan Tamils, also known as Eelam Tamils, and Indian Origin Tamils, who accounted for 11.2%, and 4.1% of the country's population, respectively, in 2011. The Sri Lankan Tamils (or Ceylon Tamils) are the descendants of the Tamils of the old Jaffna Kingdom and east coast chieftainships called Vannimais. The Indian Tamils (or Hill Country Tamils) are descendants of laborers who migrated from Tamil Nadu to Sri Lanka in the 19th century to work on tea plantations. Most Sri Lankan Tamils live in the Northern and Eastern provinces and around Colombo, whereas most Indian Tamils live in the central highlands. Historically, both the Tamil ethnic groups have identified themselves as separate communities, although there has been a greater sense of unity since the 1980s.

There also exists a significant Tamil Muslim population in Sri Lanka. However, they are listed as a separate entity under the Moors by the government. However, genealogical evidence suggests that most of the Sri Lankan Moor community are of Tamil ethnicity, and that the majority of their ancestors were also Tamils who had lived in the country for generations, and had converted to Islam from other faiths.

Tamil diaspora

Significant emigration from Indian subcontinent began in the late 18th century, when the Tamils went as indentured labourers and established businesses in other territories under the control of the British empire such as Malaya, Burma, South Africa, Fiji, Mauritius, and the Caribbean. The descendants of these Tamils continued to live in these countries, and practice their original culture, tradition and language. They form significant proportion of the population in Malaysia (7%) and Singapore (5%). A significant population also exists in South Africa, Mauritius, Fiji, as well as other regions such as the Southeast Asia and the Caribbean. However, subsequent generations might not speak the language as a mother tongue, but instead as a second or third language.

There is a small Tamil community in Pakistan, notably settled since the partition in 1947. Since the 20th century, Tamils have migrated to other regions such as Middle East and the Western World for employment. A large emigration of Sri Lankan Tamils began in the 1980s, as they sought to escape the ethnic conflict there. The largest concentration of Eelam Tamils outside Sri Lanka is found in Canada.

Culture

Language

Tamil people speak Tamil, which belongs to the Dravidian languages and is one of the oldest classical languages. According to epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan, the rudimentary Tamil Brahmi script originated in South India in the 3rd century BCE. Though the old Tamil preserved features of Proto-Dravidian language, modern-day spoken Tamil uses loanwords from other languages such as English. The existent Tamil grammar is largely based on the grammar book Naṉṉūl which incorporates facets from the old Tamil literary work Tolkāppiyam. Since the later part of the 19th century, Tamils have made the language be a key part of the Tamil identity and the language is personified in the form of Tamil̲taay ("Tamil mother"). Various varieties of Tamil is spoken by the Tamils across regions such as Madras Bashai, Kongu Tamil, Madurai Tamil, Nellai Tamil, Kumari Tamil and various Sri Lankan Tamil dialects such as Batticaloa Tamil, Jaffna Tamil and Negombo Tamil in Sri Lanka.

Literature

Tamil literature is of considerable antiquity compared to the contemporary literature from other Indian languages and represents one of the oldest bodies of literature in South Asia. The earliest epigraphic records have been dated to around the 3rd century BCE. Early Tamil literature was composed in three successive poetic assemblies known as Tamil Sangams, the earliest of which destroyed by floods. The Sangam literature was broadly classified into three divisions: iyal (poetry), isai (music) and nadagam (drama). The early Tamil literature was compiled and classified into two categories: Patinenmelkanakku ("Eighteen Greater Texts") consisting of the Ettuttokai ("Eight Anthologies") and the Pattuppattu ("Ten Idylls"), and the Patinenkilkanakku ("Eighteen Lesser Texts").

The Tamil literature that followed in the next 300 years after the Sangam period is generally called the "post-Sangam" literature which included the Five Great Epics. Another book of the post Sangam era is the Tirukkural, a book on ethics, by Thiruvalluvar. In the beginning of the Middle Ages, Vaishnava and Saiva literature became prominent following the Bhakti movement in 7th century CE with hymns composed by Alwars and Nayanmars. Notable work from the post-Bhakti period included Ramavataram by Kambar in 12th century CE and Tiruppugal by Arunagirinathar in 15th century CE. In 1578, the Portuguese published a Tamil book in old Tamil script named Thambiraan Vanakkam, thus making Tamil the first Indian language to be printed and published. Tamil Lexicon, published by the University of Madras between 1924 and 1939, was amongst the first comprehensive dictionaries published in the language. The 19th century gave rise to Tamil Renaissance and writings and poems by authors such as Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai, U.V.Swaminatha Iyer, Damodaram Pillai, V. Kanakasabhai and others. During the Indian Independence Movement, many Tamil poets and writers sought to provoke national spirit, notably Bharathiar and Bharathidasan.

Art and architecture

According to Tamil literature, there are 64 art forms called aayakalaigal. The art is classified into two broad categories: kavin kalaigal (beautiful art forms) which include architecture, sculpture, painting and poetry and nun kalaigal (fine art forms) which include dance, music and drama.

Dravidian architecture is the distinct style of architecture of the Tamils. The large gopurams, which are monumental ornate towers at the entrance of the temples form a prominent feature of Hindu temples of the Dravidian style. They are topped by kalasams (finials) and function as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex. There are a number of early rock-cut cave-temples established by the various Tamil kingdoms. The Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram, built by the Pallavas in the 7th and 8th centuries has more than forty rock-cut temples, monoliths and rock reliefs. The Pallavas, who built the group of monuments in Mahabalipuram and Kanchipuram, were one of the earliest patronisers of the Dravidian architectural style. These gateways became regular features in the Cholas and the Pandya architecture, was later expanded by the Vijayanagara and the Nayaks and spread to other parts such as Sri Lanka. There are more than 34,000 temples in Tamil Nadu built across various periods some of which are several centuries old. The influence of Tamil culture had led to the construction of various temples outside India by the Tamil dispora. The Mugal influence in medieval times and the British influence later gave rise to a blend of Hindu, Islamic and Gothic Revival styles, resulting in the distinct Indo-Saracenic architecture with several institutions during the British era following the style. By the early 20th century, the Art Deco made its entry upon in the urban landscape. In the later part of the century, the architecture witnessed a rise in the modern concrete buildings.

Tamil sculpture ranges from stone sculptures in temples, to detailed bronze icons. The bronze statues of the Cholas are considered to be one of the greatest contributions of Tamil art. Models made of a special mixture of beeswax and sal tree resin were encased in clay and fired to melt the wax leaving a hollow mould, which would then be filled with molten metal and cooled to produce bronze statues. Tamil paintings are usually centered around natural, religious or aesthetic themes. Sittanavasal is a rock-cut monastery and temple attributed to Pandyas and Pallavas which consist of frescoes and murals from the 7th century CE, painted with vegetable and mineral dyes in over a thin wet surface of lime plaster. Similar murals are found in temple walls, the most notable examples are the murals on the Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam and the Brihadeeswarar temple at Thanjavur. One of the major forms of Tamil painting is Thanjavur painting, which originated in the 16th century CE where a base made of cloth and coated with zinc oxide is painted using dyes and then decorated with semi-precious stones, as well as silver or gold threads.

Clothing

Ancient literature and epigraphical records describe the various types of dresses worn by Tamil people. Tamil women traditionally wear a sari, a garment that consists of a drape varying from 4.6 m (15 ft) to 8.2 m (27 ft) in length and 0.61 m (2 ft) to 1.2 m (4 ft) in breadth that is typically wrapped around the waist, with one end draped over the shoulder, baring the midriff. Women wear colourful silk sarees on traditional occasions. Young girls wear a long skirt called pavaadai along with a shorter length sari called dhavani. The men wear a dhoti, a 1.9 m (6 ft 3 in) long, white rectangular piece of non-stitched cloth often bordered in brightly coloured stripes which is usually wrapped around the waist and the legs and knotted at the waist. A colourful lungi with typical batik patterns is the most common form of male attire in the countryside. People in urban areas generally wear tailored clothing, and western dress is popular. Western-style school uniforms are worn by both boys and girls in schools, even in rural areas.

Calendar

The Tamil calendar is a sidereal solar calendar. The Tamil Panchangam is based on the same and is generally used in contemporary times to check auspicious times for cultural and religious events. The calendar follows a 60-year cycle. There are 12 months in a year starting with Chithirai when the Sun enters the first rāśi with the number of days in a month varying between 29 and 32. The new year starts following the March equinox in the middle of April. The days of week (kiḻamai) in the Tamil calendar relate to the navagraha in the Hindu pantheon which correspond to the various celestial bodies in the Solar System – Sun (Suriyan), Moon (Chandiran), Mars (Chevvai), Mercury (Budhan), Jupiter (Vyalan), Venus (Sukran), and Saturn (Shani), in that order.

Food and hospitality

Hospitality is a major feature of Tamil culture. It was considered as a social obligation and offering food to guests was regarded as one of the highest virtues. Rice is the diet staple and is served with sambar, rasam, and poriyal as a part of a Tamil meal. Bananas find mention in the Sangam literature and the traditional way of eating a meal involves having the food served on a banana leaf, which is discarded after the meal. Eating on banana leaves imparts a unique flavor to the food, and is considered healthy. Food is usually eaten seated on the floor and the finger tips of the right hand is used to take the food to the mouth.

There are regional sub-varieties namely Chettinadu, Kongunadu, Nanjilnadu, Pandiyanadu and Sri Lankan Tamil cuisines. There are both vegetarian and meat dishes with fish traditionally consumed across the coast and other meat preferred in the interiors. The Chettinadu cuisine is popular for its meat based dishes and generous usage of spices. The Kongunadu cuisine uses less spices and are generally cooked fresh. It uses coconut, sesame seeds, groundnut, and turmeric to go with various cereals and pulses grown in the region. Nanjilnadu cuisine is milder and is usually based on fish and vegetables. Sri Lankan Tamil cuisine uses gingelly oil and jaggery along with coconut and spices, which differentiates it from the other culinary traditions in the island. Biryani is a popular dish with several different versions prepared across various regions. Idli, and dosa are popular breakfast dishes and other dishes cooked by to the Tamil people include upma, idiappam, pongal, paniyaram, and parotta.

Medicine

Siddha medicine is a form of traditional medicine originating from the Tamils and is one of the oldest systems of medicine in India. The word literally means perfection in Tamil and the system focuses on wholesome treatment based on various factors. As per Tamil tradition, the knowledge of Siddha medicine came from Shiva, which was passed on to 18 holy men known as Siddhar led by Agastya. The knowledge was then passed on orally and through palm leaf manuscripts to the later generations. Siddha practitioners believe that all objects including the human body is composed of five basic elements – earth, water, fire, air, sky which are present in food and other compounds, which is used as the basis for the drugs and other therapies.

Festivals

Pongal is a major and multi-day harvest festival celebrated by Tamils in the month of Thai according to the Tamil solar calendar (usually falls on 14 or 15 January). Puthandu is known as Tamil New Year which marks the first day of year on the Tamil calendar and falls in April every year on the Gregorian calendar. Other major festivals include Karthikai Deepam, Thaipusam, Panguni Uthiram, and Vaikasi Visakam. Aadi Perukku is a Tamil cultural festival celebrated in the Tamil month of Adi and the worship of Amman and Ayyanar deities are organized during the month in temples across Tamil Nadu with much fanfare. Other festivals celebrated include Ganesh Chaturthi, Navarathri, Deepavali, Eid al-Fitr and Christmas.

Sports

Jallikattu is a traditional event held during the period attracting huge crowds in which a bull is released into a crowd of people, and multiple human participants attempt to grab the large hump on the bull's back with both arms and hang on to it while the bull attempts to escape. It has been practised since Sangam period with the aim of keeping people fit. Proficiency in the sport was considered a virtue while untamable bulls were held as a pride of the owner. Kabaddi is a traditional contact sport that originated from the Tamils. Chess is a popular board game which originated as Sathurangam in the 7th century CE. Traditional games like Pallanguzhi, Uriyadi, Gillidanda, Dhaayam are played across the region. In modern times, Cricket is the most popular sport.

Religion

As per the Sangam literature, the Sangam landscape was classified into five categories known as thinais, which were associated with a Hindu deity: Murugan in kurinji (hills), Thirumal in mullai (forests), Indiran in marutham (plains), Varunan in the neithal (coasts) and Kotravai in palai (desert). Thirumal is indicated as a deity during the Sangam era, who was regarded as Paramporul ("the suprement one") and is also known as Māyavan, Māmiyon, Netiyōn, and Māl in various Sangam literature. While Shiva worship existed in the Shaivite culture as a part of the Tamil pantheon, Murugan became regarded as the Tamil kadavul ("God of the Tamils"). In Tamil tradition, Murugan is the youngest son of Shiva and Parvati and Pillayar is regarded as the eldest son, who is venerated as the Mudanmudar kadavul ("foremost god").

The cult of the mother goddess is treated as an indication of a society which venerated femininity. The worship of Amman, also called Mariamman, is thought to have been derived from an ancient mother goddess, and is also very common. Kannagi, the heroine of the Cilappatikaram is worshipped as a goddess by many Tamils, particularly in Sri Lanka. In the Sangam literature, there is a description of the rites performed by the priestesses in temples. Among the ancient Tamils, the practice of erecting memorial stones (natukal) was prevalent and it continued till the Middle ages. It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship these hero stones to bless them with victory. In rural areas, local deities called Aiyyan̲ār (also known as Karuppan, Karrupasami, Muniandi), are worshipped who are thought to protect the villages from harm. Their worship probably emanated from the hero stone worship and appears to be the surviving remnants of an ancient Tamil tradition. Idol worship forms a part of the Tamil Hindu culture similar to the Hindu traditions.

During the Sangam period, Ashivakam, Jainism and Buddhism also had a significant following. Jainism existed from the Sangam period with inscriptions and drip-ledges from 1st century BCE to 6th century CE describing the same. The Kalabhra dynasty, who were patrons of Jainism, ruled over the ancient Tamil country in the 3rd–7th century CE. Buddhism had an influence in Tamil Nadu before the later Middle Ages with ancient texts referring to a Vihāra in Nākappaṭṭinam from the time of Ashoka in 3rd century BCE and Buddhist relics from 4th century CE found in Kaveripattinam. Around the 7th century CE, the Pandyas and Pallavas, who patronized Buddhism and Jainism, became patrons of Hinduism following the revival of Saivism and Vaishnavism during the Bhakti movement led by Alwars and Nayanmars.