A tawaif (Urdu: طوائف) was a highly successful courtesan singer‚ dancer‚ and poet who catered to the nobility of the Indian subcontinent, particularly during the Mughal era. With fewer opportunities available during the British Raj, many tawaifs (known as "nautch girls" to the British) transitioned into prostitution.
Known variously as tawaifs in North India, baijis in Bengal and naikins in Goa, these professional singers and dancers were dubbed as "nautch girls" during the British rule. Tawaifs were largely a North Indian institution central to Mughal court culture from the 16th century onwards and became even more prominent with the weakening of Mughal rule in the mid-18th century. They contributed significantly to the continuation of traditional dance and music forms. The tawaifs excelled in and contributed to music, dance (mujra), theatre, and the Urdu literary tradition, and were considered an authority on etiquette.
Indian writer and scholar Pran Nevile said: “The word ‘tawaif’ deserves respect, not disdain. A lot of them were singers and not sex workers. People think of them as prostitutes, undermining their value as great musicians.” On 12 May 2024, Pakistan's Dawn newspaper described tawaif as "cultural idols and female intellectuals."
Contents
History
Tawaifs have existed for centuries in the Indian subcontinent, with one of the earliest references to the profession being the character Vasantasena from the 5th century Sanskrit drama Mṛcchakatika. In early India, Gaṇikā referred to a courtesan or public dancing girl. Ganikas were trained in fine arts like dance and music to entertain kings, princes, and other wealthy patrons on religious and social occasions. Women competed to win the title of a Nagarvadhu. The most beautiful woman, and most talented in various dance forms, was chosen as the Nagarvadhu. For example, Amrapali is a famous Nagarvadhu or royal dancer.
It is believed in folkloric history that Urvashi was said to have been born on earth as a devadasi and imparted the divine knowledge of dance unto humans. The first dance of the devadasi took place in a temple in the presence of a king who honoured her with titles and gifts, and she was well-versed in temple rituals and took part in temple festivals. Devadasis were well received across North India and modern-day Pakistan and Chinese pilgrim Huein Tsang who visited India in the 7th century testified to a large number of dancing girls in the Sun Temple of Multan. Al-Biruni in his famous study of India in the 11th century recorded that about 500 dancing girls were active in the Somnath temple.
The patronage of the Mughal court in the Doab region and the subsequent atmosphere of 16th century Awadh made arts-related careers a viable prospect. Mughal Emperor Akbar himself was enchanted by a Portuguese expert dancing girl whom he named Dilruba (heart warmer). In 1623, Italian traveler Pietro Della Valle noted that the majority of public courtesans in the Empire were Mohammedan women, who partook in various acts, including singing and dancing, as opposed to the indigenous women of India, who often refused to partake, deeming it immodest.
Many girls were taken at a young age and trained in both performing arts, including mujra, Kathak, and Hindustani classical music, as well as literature, poetry (particularly ghazal), thumri, and dadra. The training of young tawaifs also encompassed Urdu writing and enunciation, as well as social skills employed in cultivating patrons and retaining them, particularly the complex etiquette associated with their craft, in which they were seen as experts. During the Mughal period, prostitutes were known as randi, kasbi, and thakahi, some prostitutes also sang and danced, but many of them did not even have access to artistic training.
British colonial period
The annexation of Oudh by the East India Company in 1856 sounded the first death knell for this medieval-era institution. It was soon looked down upon with disfavour by the colonial government, and some tawaifs entered into prostitution due to a lack of employment opportunities. Social reformers in India opposed them as social decadence. But some tawaif and institutions still survived until India's independence in 1947.The tawaifs had actively participated in anti-British actions behind the scenes. Their buildings, known as "kothas", became meeting areas and hiding places for anti-British elements. Those tawaifs who accumulated wealth provided financial support to anti-British elements. Some tawaifs suffered retaliation from colonial authorities. Their kotha was searched and their belongings confiscated. The Victorian-era morality project placed a premium on women's chastity and domesticity. As public performers, tawaifs were equated with prostitutes and their kothas were branded as brothels. Mujra dance originally did not refer to vulgar dance, but an elegant and ceremonial dance, usually performed by tawaif. During the British colonial period, some tawaifs became prostitute. The distinction between prostitutes and tawaifs began to blur. Some prostitutes also called their erotic dances mujra dance. Mujra dance gradually became associated with sex and prostitution.
Decline
After the British colonization, although more brothels and prostitutes were operating in Heera Mandi, there were still tawaif performing activities in the area, Heera Mandi retained its reputation as a centre of the performing arts. After the partition, young and attractive tawaifs from Heera Mandi became the first choice of Pakistan filmmakers. Tawaifs from Heera Mandi joined the Lollywood industry and gained much fame and wealth. Some of the most skilled tawaifs performed as backup dancers in early Pakistan films. In Heera Mandi and surrounding areas, there were many dance classrooms and music classrooms, which were closed as the tawaifs and musicians left.
With the development of time, the tawaif in India has gradually disappeared. In the 1980s, when kothas were no longer recognized as centres for aesthetics, and society disapproved of the tawaif's art, as they felt it was sex work in the guise of adakari (performance). It was an era when tawaifs had to dodge guns, goons and Ghalib's ghazals. The tawaifs who are still performing no longer have the same literary education as before, but they are not sex workers, "a courtesan is no less than a circus performer, balancing a bottle on her head". They are all trained in Kathak, to regale the men who visit them in the evenings. Another skill they are expected to master is singing. Tawaifs are versed in ghazals, hori and thumris, but many now know just enough to earn a livelihood. In addition to performing at kotha, tawaifs also performed during weddings at home, celebrations of child birth and other festivities, provided the entertainment of singing and dancing. The 1993 Bow Bazaar bomb blast in Calcutta brought an end to the kothas in the busy commercial district. As dance bars and disco music replaced mujras, kathak and thumri, the tawaifs abandoned the profession.
Famous Tawaif
Some of the most prominent tawaifs in history were Anarkali, Mah Laqa Bai, Bhagmati, Lal Kunwar, Qudsia Begum, Zainabadi Mahal, Mubarak Begum, Nur Bai, and Begum Samru (who rose to rule the principality of Sardhana in western Uttar Pradesh), Moran Sarkar (who became the wife of Maharaja Ranjit Singh), Wazeeran (patronised by Lucknow's last nawab Wajid Ali Shah), Begum Hazrat Mahal (Wajid Ali's first wife who played an important role in the Indian Rebellion).
A number of television and film actresses and singers from Pakistan were tawaifs.
Begum Akhtar (7 October 1914 – 30 October 1974), Indian singer and actress, known as "Mallika-e-Ghazal" (Queen of Ghazals).
Binodini Dasi (1862–1941), Indian actress, pioneering entrepreneur of the Bengali stage.
Fatma Begum (1892–1983), Indian actress, director and screenwriter.
Husna Bai, thumri singer.
Jaddanbai (1892–1949), Indian master music composer, singer, actress, and film maker, and her mother Daleepabai.
Janki Bai (1880–1934), Indian singer, poet and classical singer. She was famously known as The Star of Gramaphone.
Rattan Bai (15 July 1890 – 1 January 1986), Indian actress and singer.
Kajjanbai (15 February 1915 – 20 December 1945) Indian singer and actress, often referred to as the "Nightingale of Bengal".
Kajjan Begum (24 January 1932 – 10 February 2000) Pakistani classical singer and playback singer.
Malika Pukhraj (1912–2004), Pakistani ghazal and folk singer.
Cultural influences
"Tawaifs & Kothas" cultural tour initiated by "Enroute Indian History". Explore the lives of the tawaifs or dancing girls on a heritage walk through the streets of Shahjahanabad with Enroute Indian History.
Popular culture
In films
The image of the tawaif has had an enduring appeal, immortalized in Bollywood and Lollywood movies and Pakistani dramas.
Films with a tawaif as a character include:
Devdas (1935)
Devdas (1936)
Devdas (1937)
Anhonee (1952)
Anarkali (1953)
Devadasu (1953)
Chandni Chowk (1954)
Mirza Ghalib (1954)
Devdas (1955)
Anarkali (1955)
Mehndi (1958)
Zindagi Ya Toofan (1958)
Jalsaghar (1958)
Mughal-E-Azam (1960)
Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam (1962)
Uttar Falguni (1963)
Mujhe Jeene Do (1963)
Benazir (1964)
Devdas (1965)
Kaajal (1965)
Mamta (1966)
Teesri Kasam (1966)
Anarkali (1966)
Bahu Begum (1967)
Mere Huzoor (1968)
In documentary films
The Courtesans of Bombay (1983)
The Other Song (2009)
In Indian television
Umrao jaan Ada (2014)
Lajwanti (2015)
Bhabiji Ghar Par Hain! (2015)
Dastaan-E-Mohabbat Salim Anarkali (2018)
A Suitable Boy (TV series) (2020)
Jubilee (TV series) (2023)
Heeramandi:The Diamond Bazaar (2024)
In Pakistani television
Aik Muhabbat Soo Afsanay (1974), PTV drama
Anarkali (1988), PTV drama
Pyas (1989), PTV drama
Chand Grehan (1995), drama on STN
Red Card (1995), drama on STN
Samandar Hai Darmiyan (1998)
Ghulam Gardish (1998)
Umrao Jaan Ada (2003)
Aatish (2004), PTV drama
Adhoray Khawab (2004)
Bazar (2004), PTV telefilm based on story by Saadat Hasan Manto
Kaantay (2004), PTV drama
Bheegi Palkain (2005)
Makan Aka Home a Heaven (2006)
Bhool (2006), PTV drama
Sitam (2006), PTV drama
Mithaas (2007), PTV drama
Jhumka Jaan (2007)
Yeh Zindagi Hai (2008)
Mere Humnasheen (2009), a television film
Saza Aur Jaza (2010), PTV drama
Quddusi Sahab Ki Bewah (2012)
Chand Chehra (2013)
In literature
Tawaifnama by Saba Dewan
Mera Naam Gauhar Jaan Hai by Vikram Sampath
TABOO: The Hidden Culture of a Red Light District by Fouzia Saeed
Umrao Jaan Ada novel by Mirza Hadi Ruswa
Nashtar novel by Hasan Shah
Bazar story by Saadat Hasan Manto
The Last Courtesan by Manish Gaekwad
Song Sung True by Malika Pukhraj
Akhtari : The Life and Music of Begum Akhtar by Yatindra Mishra, Maneesha Taneja
Nautch Girls of India by Pran Nevile
The Unsung Martyred Tawayafs by Dr. K.S. Bhardwaj
Dance to Freedom by A.K. Gandhi